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THE
ADVOCATE OF VETERINARY REFORM
AND
OUTLINES
OF
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE;
ALSO,
A GENERAL HISTORY OF THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE VETERINARY SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, WITH PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS ON FEEDING, WATERING, GROOMING, SHOEING, &c.,' &C.: WRITTEN WITH A VIEW OF REFORMING THE VETERINARY SCIENCE, AND TEACHING EVERY MAN HOW TO PREVENT DISEASE IN ANIMALS.
CONTAINING, ALSO,
A VETERINARY DICTIONARY,
SELECTED FROM THE WORKS OF
R. WHITE, V.S.,
OF LONDON, AND ADAPTED TO THE PRESENT STATE OF THE REFORMED PRACTICE IN THE UNITED STATES,
AS PRACTISED BY THE AUTHOR;
WITH SELECTIONS FROM THE WORKS OF YOUATT, PERCIVAL, AND CURTIS, TOGETHER WITH REMARKS AND OBSERVATIONS ON
BLOODLETTING, AND THE USE OF POISONS;
SHOWING THEIR DESTRUCTIVE TENDENCY, ETC.
The fundamental principles taught in this work are, that all medicine should be given with a view of aiding the vital power, instead of depressing, as heretofore, ad
BY GEORGE H. DADD,M.D.,
PRACTITIONER OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL PRACTICE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE AND SURGERY, AUTHOR OF **DADD’s CHART OF REFORMED PRACTICE.”
BOSTON: PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR.
1850.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, By G. H. Dapp, M. D.
in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.
STEREOTYPED AT THE BOSTON STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY.
CONTENTS.
ENTRODUCTIONS 2s 22'6 53's 40S REG HO Ses A AO 7 Description of the Bony Structures i oes celvelle ec cecleccccescnsecte 12
The Causes of Complaint, ..... bh Ie 5 at ANS let Harateva ater « 15 General History of the Horse,...... Giese Sis s4 SSO OIC Haters. o 22 External Conformation of the Horse,....... SU AGE BR ZPES EYES: SAE 34 Progress of the Veterinary Art in Rngland,....... cee settee pbobomc 25 Outlines of Anatomy in the Horse, ......- aieiieleNGis|a Wieieletbreic eh stetonole secse 29 Description of the Structure of the Different Organs,............eeee002 29 Pinysiology; :s2f32ss2¢ Slated sdaedbedae sa dts se SANUIN We ROU sy Mies 81 Description of the Uses of the different Organs and Functions of the HROrS@, secs ccc scsseceve ene REET ERAN NE CeCe ey Meet meene a0. Sl Wutrition,: 3 ¢..<. Hier sd de sda esses MA id soleterate eel Me Viivoace OL W)PPESTION, 2% 22%. bert cht eee ees Stoleterele peewee ae wis clveclesdsiieecelse 32 Mastication,...... basses sdddids descaes'es eee eee ie ee SORRY SODAS 6 82 Chymification, ..... Cesc. Ue FSI IU UU GIO tone aictelafatets ete etelee 32 Absorption of the Chyle, .......... CeRine St cWietclaye ware ccc cccccessseee BS Circulation of the Blood,....... ASSIS inc obcciotr oe ee SS ES 4 Respiration and Structure of the Lungs,............. mrotatcreretaels secceee 38 Glandular Secretions,..... Sessa sad dewe Eten te reratereraretaretate aS eaest. 5°88 Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye,......sssecececcsecccce Weetleleo 3D Remarks on the Causes of Disease in the Hye,.....seeeeccccseceseeee 42 Anatomy of the Female Organs of Generation, ........ Pea e tl he alerts 43 Cistoris,: 454243532 BO Ro Cay Ste Setees Soidegas STE ns SRILA S44. Membrane of the Vagina,.......+ SU gig GoGc acede Shi Hoes Batre athe epcene 45 Minne Ss tsssSscecse ests kes PTAs IUHOSE oe SO LA HUSA § BAe SALT Physiology of the Organs of Generation, Male and Female,............+. 48 Stomach’: 6:2 sc2tssescs c54%e Stocste Se Bo BOISE Le 7 SFA 49 Anatomy of the Foot, and its Diseases,..........- dase disease Se SERS. 52 Foot Lameness,........ sessb sieges Jddadscecaas d BOSS ARI he OG Corns; 2236 s2é: esecaresee stbaseesests daeeiete steerer Su klar ca TSO eS 56 DHOCING, ssrsssskstsessssiessiisedss 585 crater etter Srcke Sid Pee Sec oes O77. 57 Contraction of the Hoof, seis csce cote ster es cee eee ee SURES. 61 Remarks on Feeding,........... » tale S a elat ae ott OE ie Ras e!s). sepeoe
Steaming and Preparing Food for Animals,.....cceeseeecccscccreereees 66
4 CONTENTS,
Watering,...scceccccssccccsccsccccccccesccsccsccsccscccscssscseces 69
EIX€rCISE,.0 eee ceccoccecccsenscccssccs isteletatatetctetere Srolelovelelsiale wie levoiosteloumerei Want of Appetite,....--..-... winlareiniateloreleleteteyelsipieleleleleleiats ataieiaiefa|eleteinietale mage On Stable Management,...-..-------++: ssoqves00Rdeor Kabonoooe soca. {fs * Ventilation and Admission of Light into the Stable,.....-. olen sts UG Admission of Light,.........+.-. poncdagccge> eel clote/alo/stelejale eteletsietatate - 76 On the Ill Effects of Manures of large Cities on the Qualities of Plantsyee rid On Animal Matter,....... oe S8 too 8 ae ie 36 300 30 S00cc00 lero terexorctate 80 On Breeding,....-0++--+-+eeees efatatetetorelintcralere alate taterelenetevcietetevetelatsiele esece OO Remarks on Bloodletting,.......escecescecceccccecccccce recess Sosace (he! On the Theory of Health, Disease, Fever, and Inflammation,..... spooon oie Causes of Disease,....- ereleteleretetolekeretoretetet= praia eYale eleteloioveretelesatcraroleVefetcletets 99 IPOISONE Meee eeceieeieialeitericl= alctatelcve(etelsterels efeteiniers doooanosc stettieres NOS Congestion of the Brain, &€., ..--..-+-eeeeeceeecercees aioicievelere ere erate 100 How to avoid Congestion, Staggers, and Apoplexy,.--.-.---+++-+- sinjellOA Inhuman Treatment of Horses in England,...-.-+--+--eeceseeeeceres - 104 On Rabies, or Madness, and the Effects of the Milk of Rabid and Dis- easeceAmumaalscmspeatals/otcls)siaiclelaicleleleieie ele) aisteletatal=felete)=jolslelelel<f=lolwiniets sfernes LOS Preliminary Remarks on the Distribution of the Arteries, Veins, &c.,.--- 110 Distribution of Arteries,.....--..---- sredsuoupees a yapehissehechsboy ciate eaeteke 112 JNianore INO na Goan nAnaoonanapooUes cobeccunsonn sacs O00 ae 112 The Carotid Artery, .......+-+200- Socsoadqodnoduac sontooegsonsO> 115 Ramus Anastomoticus,...... BANE Sb FASO OHO OOO ROB ODED OCOOD Dauls aay Internal Carotid,...... eyeyeteicke jastonoooocoddaG So b0RS suesd apetehoters 117 IPOStenioreAOntan etcle coils athe Sivielatelsreter etetevetele sis evaneistere siecete A'S Distribution of Veins in the Horse, ....... ailovess/siial isis) erajlaver nial aletelenetenetanets 122 {Mn Arinemorn Went, Chih oood 660000 cgdd ocdd oO bone GOD ORGOS tegooe 122 Mas Ymusqrllen® Wei cosa sno condndsoccancp ancoce sooaosdoanc Snood 5, Le Moe Owotouiall Webijcoooco66nc0q900p andda5e0 nood.aoe05ss Soan¢c0ee 123 ARhesPoOsterlormVvieriay C.avanteclcrelarsialelelslelelelcleieietelsteteteieioieisteretcleneiae Socacc. Ue The Brain and its Appendages,.......sese+sessseecees Sobeosssceses Lay The Sinuses,........... sholeisitersietetetaisieivetaet u sfevetaretatetoielep ays a sifeoheveistoxate 128 (OGielorebivls so506G00005 aieteKolateLorsiolotavateleletaleietatasisleleletetaiatas dtaveinie: «pele te eae, Cerebellum eer ccc. s ehierei Neve lcrotete Frailetafte tole. .cfeveleleversimneteratate Bae. je) Medulla Spinalis,.........-.....0.. Dood ove DOOR Steledehelefeleieleteeleiete e229 Origin and Distribution of the Nerves,....+.+scccersseccccreeeesees 130 Cerebral Nerves, .---+.-0 sess cece esse seen atateferstareiereretere elolereteraretets - 130 Cervical Nerves, .......- 080500000 0000006 exatvaverepetalatoveters ashe taetels 134 The Diaphragmatic or Phrenic Nerves,......+sccecessccce cece acee 135 Dorsal Nerves,.......- aclactitsbetoieceroreys ehveleiote elekateiatencietsieieyiets Saasosee SK Iiumbar Nerves,.......... Sas lcrate ae ieteNe iol atatetel eleva vereterere Sisiave Isles \aieratetoranm@licey Sacral Nerves, ........-. aval ever svahericie ereL ae eee Once Ae \skatate Sisrehurage «136 Coccygeal Nerves, ......-----20--- nodonse eecieia.s poodsg base soeee 136 Nerves of the Fore Extremity, ....-....... Sieveiatcalsveleiovslaiaierersie Apna. si Nerves of the Hind Extremity, ................ bisleie/sicinie.s visite RE MRLS Sympathetic Nerve,....-.......0000. atateleheraketefeiere Sovioooae ecccesee 139
Origin, Insertion, and Use of the Different Muscles of the Horse,....-.. 140 MVAPEZAVS5) seein veces esse vecelanvisaviceieetcdeee oseaiveivie sets sieve 140
CONTENTS. 5
UAT STITH) GEST y</='s10's).s)e 10) sialelara/ele\aiainie/s'e\ aye) eicyeier Ss acinieiatassie alulsiatsistelstearccre, L40 Rhomboideus Brevis,.......2s-escescees srerela“atbeatal Sehetaveleleleisteloretorateletnea 4 Rhomboideus Longus,....---++.++- socd bodevocc “Seenencadeosesenog lal Levator Humeri,........-. afeteleist sterols Seon Gea6ba5¢ Headend senatioos onl Muscles of the Neck, ..... acooadtoosa bose Madcon obenot aiatetaiers ayeteisiare 141 Anterior Cervical Region, ......- afatal starsialeleiciaicrsveletelerets aiatereratatelateyatetelats 143 Muscles of the Head,...... aitafal olararevapeiverarehcere av akapepareeetaayatialarens iS anaivatetne 144 Muscles of the Trunk. — Pectoral Region,.......-e+eesesecceseceeees 146 HitmMbAaT) LVCTIONS ate's'ayojej cte''aj0,a1oy0 'srsin «is' ele aloleisig'e sin alclaitlaclocaecsceesecejes 148 Internal Costal Region,........++.....- sEopeobce svsecscvecscovcese 150 Muscles of the Trunk. — Abdominal Region,.........e..seeseeeeeeee LSI Muscles of the Fore Extremity. — External Scapular Region,........ - 152 Posterior umeral We PIOW) sini <ieja's=inisleinnjaisia.siaisisjaisisie/cl¢ oa cie'e a eicisielclaciaies LOS Anterior Humeral Cam cir. soppone popooanoaD 153 Muscles of the Arm, .......... At Apo (Sc ae EW ciclarotalecofe(s tole) atstsiaieret oiais 154 Deep Posterior Brachial Region, .......cccsocscececssccces sececcee 155 Anterior Brachial Region, ......--...00. iotatefotekatelateleleolellayetarataiel elefarelera 155 Muscles of the Hind Extremity,..... cia) State's) <lafe/<teieleve soubdchacc pretetersrs 156 “6 6s Vain chisweys) < aieter stelsateletsiate tareyelehe dhe teke ars MeO ioe Roe e Die ae 156 Internal Femoral Region,............. ececcccene SpoSec ce oone HOECOS 157 ea ee AE lan hasan ahs nl nhn' a a ola 8 Weis gue ai nigicls wicia'n, creimaaela Moderns -- 158 Pelvic Region,.........sssesseecececccs Sie telat steerer arete oo Séoatingoc os-- 159 Posterior Femoral Region,» =. 2.2 ccc. wees ccerccrcccceccce Sooo Acc - 159 Mimseles of ‘the PP BUCH /eseje1atercieystatafatetaloate! &istata/aliotol oteieiele elwletard celeccesesee 160 lebeyabitaky ea gabo ONEIOOOOn OU e Coo sae sistay lots <Peietta She siokelle «;~iaf\cie/ct's\s\ o's 161 Anterior Crural Region,............... ds SAO std metera haiti ads bib bmodd 162 The Mechanism and Functions of the Joints,....... bie stalerelehae olere\ siete! «(cael GO Articulations Of they Primi, oa nisleie\e 0: oye 0) evsseieinys evapovejetelateteters als) atelhats’ cholate - 163 ATIC MlatLOne Ob he Hore MxtreMitiy,,, «\s\c12/</\= <\s\es 4 o/sisle) sieiaielelels «0 violels «ate 165 a Clings 1 thal oschysimtaApooeuebone booc spade Komecobbcs HG A Table of the Bones in the Structure of the Horse,....... a skeiaNate, Sichevetete 169 Distribution of the Lymphatics,...........+... sega o aiter se reichet ac slclajata sl onpligO BU OM OPACIC TACT avevalel ataisr0i oie} shone) save, 6iaiectele1a/ch nlalveletaieral cverslakersieetelalaminiate - 170 Lymphatics discharging their Contents into the Abdominal Portion of the aMivOracie DUCE, 1. setee's a cis’e elevate cieeleiciave soe siotitece alelaiaietarey eyalelclaten sts\erete 171 Ramifications terminating in the Thoracic Portion of the Common Duct, 174 WD ut ee NNT Wao) sessed ones aye ta <i os nye chores yateters suayensjaercnetejake aves veartentpocusdots soose Ue Glossary of Medical Terms used in this work, .......... cronooronoedne aleHl DicTIoNARY OF THE VETERINARY ART,...... S avcreps\efete.s store eta Mace ne aie accel SO EMS GEFEN Hols) Stel sinc lebatovlohai eis siete nlelaisios eielcreiate terete age bon sol atatn elelsiore coosee 286 Description of the Organs of Digestion in the Ox,.........sccecceeeees 286 Internal and External Relations,..... +. escsseee slsietaharoualspayene oeobaccg, CE! EVOrm AM Oatilesscicecisie.s eo sicle ce s wigobedac ayatecerelorste siisfe\c\chofalalaisistelvivisisenrco L A List of Horse and Cattle Medicines,......... Haha else sisivvattee wleee a oO T Mtemarks: Om Clystersysc 22 \apereie is s\t/sse sere sfelniele Boe OOds Hopto sto a4 meet SOD
Important to Owners of Horses and Cattle, .......sccecccccccccscsesess 307
Pratt No. 1.
oF Sy
PLATES.
Showing the External Parts of the Horse; also, a View
Oe toe Wihigenllene Strainers, 65055000 50005000 sd50 454 5 SIRAIAOI55 coo 06d000 d005 GodDO0bD ODODE Sob NnCa sdb Ges - The Heart viewed externally, ..--...ssevcccceccercees The Stomach of the Horse,..... po0do0 0000 ocntse wimeetes
The Leg from the Shank Bone,....0+sccsccsesceercees
INTRODUCTION.
Tue author is in hopes that the principles here set forth may enable those for whom the work is maimly written (viz., our farming interest, and those who have the care of and own horses) to perceive the folly of violating nature’s laws, in attempting to cure disease ; also, that they may be led to see the wisdom and necessity of aiding nature in her intentions for the removal of the causes of disease.
It isa subject of great importance, and should be the pride and duty of every man to sympathize with those who, though our slaves, have common feeling with us. Yes, brutes, as we call them, have, lke us, memory, ideas of reflec- tion, reason, and feelings of gratitude and duty; in fact, all those moral powers differing from ours, not in kind, but merely in degree.
There is no period, in the history of the United States, when our domestic animals have ranked so high, or have been held in such general estimation, as at the present time; yet there is no subject on which there is such a lamentable want of knowledge, as the proper treatment of the diseases of our domestic animals.
How long our citizens will suffer this important branch of study to be neglected, remains to be seen. ‘The sons of America are ever foremost in the field of improvement. America numbers among her farming interest men of giant minds, whose cry is, Reform; they demand, and will have,
8 INTRODUCTION.
sooner or later, a more effectual system of medication —a system that will remove the diseases of their animals without submitting them to the excruciating torment of the firing iron, lancet, and the destructive agents that have heretofore been used for the cure of disease.
What man of common sense can for a moment suppose, that powerful destructive agents can restore a weak, sinking animal to ahealthy state? Many of the means recommend- ed by some works on horse-doctoring, would make a well animal sick, whatever they might do to the one already diseased. We are told that the agents they recommend pro- voke the system to rally her powers, and resist disease ; and, at the same time, these agents, being destructive in their na- ture, produce another, or a secondary disease, and that the primary disease is cured by exciting a secondary one! This is just as absurd as knocking a horse down to make him stand up. But truth and experience are abroad, exerting their in- fluence on the minds of reflecting, honest, and independent men, and the day is not far distant when the lancet and poi- son will be rejected in the treatment of disease in animals.
As the advocate of veterinary reform, the author has en- deavored to present the subject to the reader in a brief manner, without writing all round, and failing to hit the mark. The object aimed at is the prevention of disease. It is an old but true saying, that ‘an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure ;” and it is more convenient and less expensive.
Every farmer throughout the land is furnished by the Creator with ample means for preventing the introduction of disease into the animal organization, and to remove it, in some cases, when it has made its appearance; thus the man who confines his prescriptions to a few good remedies, the action of which he is well acquainted with, is far more successful than he who is constantly changing his medicines for the popular compounds of the day.
A knowledge of anatomy, physiology, and pathology is important, yet not absolutely necessary, in the cure of disease. The two former are, of course, more important that the latter.
INTRODUCTION. 9
All the pathology on earth does not enable us to cure disease ; many of our farmers, who have rejected the lancet and poisons, and use only those articles which are favorable to the whole animal functions, are in the daily habit of curing disease, of whose pathology they know nothing. The pathologist may discover alterations in tissues, the blood, and the lungs, and tell us that herein lie the cause and seat of disease; yet these changes themselves are but results, and preceding these were other manifestations of disorder; therefore pathology must always be imperfect, because it is a science of consequences.
The most powerful microscopes have been used to discover the seat of disease ; yet it has not taught us to cure one single disease hitherto incurable. Experience is the only true guide of every successful practitioner.
The principles of our physiological practice may be summed up as follows :—
We contemplate the animal system as a perfect piece of mechanism, subject to life and death; that, while the vital power is free and unobstructed, the animal is in a physiologi- cal or healthy state; but when, by any means, the vital power is obstructed, it is in a diseased or pathological state.
All our intentions of cure being in accordance with nature’s laws, (viz., promoting the integrity of the living powers,) we have termed our system a physiological one, though it is sometimes denominated botanic, in allusion to the fact that all our remedial agents are derived from the vegetable king- dom.
We recognize a conservative or healing power in the ani- mal economy, whose unerring indications we endeavor to follow.
Our systen) proposes, under all circumstances, to restore the diseased organs to a healthy state, by codperating with the vitality remaining in those organs, by the exhibition of sana- tive means, and, under all circumstances, to assist, and not oppose, nature in her curative processes.
Poisonous substances, blood-letting, or processes of cure
that contemplate destruction of parts, or, in other words, act ee .
10 INTRODUCTION.
pathologically, cannot be used by us. ‘The laws of animal being are physiological. ‘They never were, and never will be, pathological ; hence we codperate with nature, and with na- ture’s laws, by using agents that act physiologically.
We believe that the best system of veterinary science is that which prevents disease by proper attention to breeding, rearing, and stable management. It will be perceived that our aim is to depart from the debilitating and life-destroying practice, and approach, as near as possible, to the sanative.
The greatest obstacle to veterinary knowledge is the be- lief, that in the science of medicine there are pathological laws; and it has led men to believe that fever and inflamma- tion are disease. Now, there never was, and never will be, a pathological law. The divine Creator implanted in the ani- mal organization laws to maintain it in its normal state, and those laws are physiological, and not pathological. Now, to believe that the all-wise God implanted in the constitution both normal and abnormal laws, would be but to destroy his own intention. The only laws in domestic animals, in any state, are physiological. Overfeeding and imperfect ventila- tion may prevent the full and free play of these laws, thereby curtailing health; but still, all the vital action that exists is physiological.
In justice to J. S. Skinner, the talented editor of the Farmer’s Library, we would observe, that our notes and strictures on Youatt apply to the original work, as published in London. ‘The work has since been republished in this country, with valuable additions by J. S. S., and is better adapted to the wants of the American people. If the latter gentleman would only employ his talents in advocating and sustaining the non-poison principle, our cause (the cause of humanity) would receive a valuable auxiliary.
To Dr. C. M. Woop we are indebted for valuable sugges- tions, gleaned from an extensive practice of sixteen or seven- teen years in this city. He has experienced the imperfect theoretical teachings of the schools, and assures us, that he has established facts, deduced from observation and experi-
INTRODUCTION. 11
ence, which has led to a more successful treatment of the diseases of domestic animals.
The author acknowledges his obligations to various sources for this work. 'The authors named in the title page have been consulted and freely employed; the most valuable assist- ance has been derived from the teachings and works of the professors of the P. M. College of Ohio.
G. H. D.
DESCRIPTION OF THE BONY STRUCTURE.
The Head is composed of the following bones, which a reference to the plate will exemplify: a, the os frontis, or forehead; 6, the nasal bones; c, the os lachrymalis; d, the jugal, or cheek bone; e, the superior maxillary, or upper jaw ; f, that portion which unites with the palatine and jugal bones; g, the inferior maxillary bone, which contains the upper incisor teeth; h, the maxilla posterior, or lower jaw; the dark shade between a, c, d, is the orbit of the eye; 7, the parietal, or vertical bone; mm, , the temporal bone, consisting of the squamous and petrous portions; m, the petrous division, being a part of the internal ear; J, 0, p, the occipital or knoll bone; o marks the occipital elevation; p, the cuneiform pro- cess; J, the condyloid process, marking its junction with the atlas.
The Neck. — B, B, the seven cervical vertebre, or bones of the neck; -a, the first of these, is denominated the atlas.
The Spine is composed of the eighteen dorsal vertebre, 1—18; the lumbar vertebre, which form the loins, six in number, 1—6; the sacrum, five in number, a, 3), c, d, e, the coccygis, or bones of the tail, 1—15.
The Thoraz, Ribs, Shoulder, and Sternuwm.—'The true ribs are nine in number, 1—9; and are so denominated from their cartilages being united to the sternum; 10—18 mark the false ribs, their cartilages being inserted into each other; a, the head, which articulates with the transverse process of the first dorsal vertebre ; 6, the end uniting the sternum; C, the sternum; D, the scapula, or shoulder-blade; c, the neck; d, coracoid process, or apophysis ; g, the anterior spina- tus fossa; h, the spine; between eand f lies the base, which is the extent of the cartilage of the scapula; between c and e is the posterior costa; and between d and f lies the anterior costa.
DESCRIPTION OF THE BONY STRUCTURE. 13
The Fore Legs. —E, the humerus; &k, cervix and head, uniting the shoulder-blade ; #’, the ulna; the upper extremity, m, forms the olecranon, or elbow; n,n, the radius; G', Gt‘, the carpus, or knees, consisting of seven bones; H, H, the meta- carpal or shank bones; 0, 0, the cannons; p, p, the small metacarpal; qg, q, the pastern; 7,7, the sessamoids; s, s, the coronets, or small pastern bones; ¢, ¢, the coffin bones, or os pedis.
The Pelvis and Hind Legs. — TI, the pelvis, made up of three bones; a, b, c, the illium; d, the ischium, and e, the pubis; that part of the illium a@ forms the hip, or haunch; g, the foramen thyroideum ; /, the femur, or thigh bone; h, the cervix and head, articulating with the lower extremity of the pelvis; 7, the great trochanter; k, k, the anterior con- dyles; J, 1, the posterior condyles ; m, m, the patella, or stifle joint; n,n, the tibia; o, 0, fibula; Z, tarsus, or hock, con- sists of six bones; p, p, forms the points of the hocks; M, the metatarsi; g, the cannon, or shank; below are the seramoids, large and small pasterns, navicular and coffin bone.
ésance tex§ ern abi a en i yet eco ou i! a i eaciod sade
ao si
: eres at i ve
hi hi as
ae’ 1) ate den a4 al Susi iitidoad: axl, Jw incall, onl
6, ar agri, sore tntyT ated salut, as cesean Pre)
f att a perohworyihty sewed Ritiyt egal Ps > Segre oth, re
bipai hati
‘
N.B. The navicular bone, which articulates between the small past The Skeleton, or Bony Structure of the Horse, consists of three sectic veral parts or portions.
; ee
agra ; pss is
es
: eal iat
Y 1 / YY, Uf SEU, y) ( d \ hss J J Ye (ban AtkS \ \ LAG? Oa S Lh RY BY EA SN | ath * dy t
N.B. The navicular bone, astern and coffin bone, is not seen in this view. The Skeleton, or Bony
ee eae . - ivided into Structure of the Horse, consists of three Sections, viz., the head, the trunk, and the 2 Suey Hug iaresdpaisubaiys Several parts or portions.
which articulates between the small p
€
Uy &, ® VE he 5 = > WW ° Sp A 3 gl S H's. EGR Bo a eae if “Wo ery | KUEN \" = S) Wy! TES E O==, 7 22/7, oe we) His HE | . Aailiil ‘Sy
“SNOGNAL GNV SaIOSaNW FHL JO AMAIA
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF
: THE HORSE.
‘‘ Tn horses or cattle, it is probable that almost all diseases may be prevented by judicious management with regard to feeding, breeding, rearing, and exercise.” — Dr. Waite, V. 8.
‘‘Nature is ever busy, by the silent operation of her own forces, endeavoring to cure disease. Her medicines are air, warmth, food, water, and sleep. Their use is directed by instinct ; and that man is most worthy the name of physician, who most reveres its unerring laws.’”’ — Dr. Dixon.
THE CAUSES OF COMPLAINT, AND THE REASON WHY WE ADYO- CATE A REFORM IN VETERINARY PRACTICE.
Mr. Youarr writes, that the annual loss of cattle in Eng- land, by disease, amounts to $50,000,000! and the loss of sheep at one tenth of the whole number; and, though there the veterinary art is taught as a science in the endowed col- leges, and regular professors practise it throughout the king- dom, he says it is difficult to say which is the greatest source of this immense loss, “the ignorance and obstinacy of the ,cow leach, or the ignorance and supineness of the owner.” ‘To make this declaration clear and conclusive, we will con- sider the principal reasons why the healing art has never yet derived much, if any, improvement from all the various labors that the faculty have bestowed on it. We wish the reader to understand, that the same reasoning applies to animals; for they require the same general treatment as mankind, viz., by aiding the vital powers.
If the remedies are ever adapted to destroy life or injure the
16 CAUSES OF COMPLAINT.
system of man, they are also adapted to injure that of the horse, and all domestic animals. If they ever recover from the effects of the lancet and poison, we must attribute it to the power of the system to defend itself against all encroach- ments upon its sanative operations. If good medicine, such as experience teaches us, always operates in favor of health, and has a tendency to remove disease, it always has that tendency, both on man and domestic animals, and is proper to be administered whenever the state of the system demands it. The great fault of physicians, in estimating the labors of their predecessors, has ever been, that they either received or condemned by wholesale every previous system, abandon- ing the truth with the errors, and subjecting themselves to the necessity of travelling over the whole ground again. By this means their confidence is impaired in their ability ever to arrive at the simple truth.
Hippocrates, the earliest systematic writer on medicine, discovered by careful observation the existence of a principle which he styled Nature. ‘To this principle he attributes a Species of intelligence, and conceived that one of its most important offices is to attract to the body what is beneficial, and to reject from it what would prove injurious. This isa truth which no argument can disprove.
Sydenham says our misfortunes proceed from our having long since forsaken our skilful guide, Hippocrates, and the ancient method of cure founded upon the knowledge of conjunct cases that plainly appear, insomuch that the art which is this day practised, being invented by superficial reasoning, is rather the art of talking than of healing.
D’Alembert represents the state of the science: ‘“ Nature is fighting with disease. A blind man armed with a club, that is, a physician, comes to settle the difference. He first tries to make peace. When he cannot accomplish this, he lifts his club and strikes at random. If he strikes the disease, he kills the disease ; if he strikes nature, he kills nature.”
The very principles upon which medical theories are based were never established. They are, and always were, false.
CAUSES OF COMPLAINT. We
Dr. Rush says, “ Dissections daily convince us of our igno- rance of the seats of disease, and cause us to blush at our prescriptions.” He also adds, ‘“‘We have assisted in multi- plying disease: we have done more,— we have increased their mortality.” If it be true what Dr. Rush and hundreds of others assert, that the science of medicine, as practised at the present day, is no science at all, and who doubts it ? — then we can easily account for the sad havoc, that, aecord- ing to Youatt, has taken place in the animal kingdom. Well may we exclaim, They have been swept away as by the blast of a dire tornado. ‘The lancet, antimony, and corrosive sub- limate have been more destructive than the pestilential sword. They are the Samsons of a barbarous practice, and have slain their thousands and tens of thousands.
The great bone of contention among men has been, ‘ What are nature’s intentions? and with what means, and in what manner, shall we second them?”
To this Professor Curtis replies, ‘‘ While Hippocrates ad- hered in practice to his correct principles, that nature should be aided by means and processes that act in harmony with her intentions, his practice was universally successful ; but when he departed from established principles, in the use of unknown agents, which proved useless and injurious, he often failed of curing disease.
‘It must never be forgotten that, while the learned were verging to something like a correct theory of vital action in a healthy body, they were departing farther and farther from the truth in two other points of importance.
‘ist. They were settling their minds in the belief that, in every case of the encroachment of offending causes, this very vital power, so essential to health, in rising to expel them, becomes at once the very sum and essence of disease, (‘vital action cannot be a diseased action,’ ) and must be checked, subdued, and destroyed at all hazards. But, finding none of the innocent and life-supporting remedies calculated to do this work in a direct manner, as the effect of their adminis- tration, —
a)
18 CAUSES OF COMPLAINT.
“Od. They gradually departed from the use of nature’s remedies, and introduced into their therapeutics the processes of bleeding, blistering, the knife, and caustic; and into their Materia Medica the most deadly poisons contained in the threefold kingdom of nature, whether derived at once from her laboratory, or detached from her compounds by the use of her powers, under the guidance of chemical science.
“In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the famous chemist Paracelsus introduced a new system into medicine, founded on the principles of his art. Hitherto the physicians rejected the use of opium, calomel, and other efficacious remedies. Efficacious they have been, as the ghosts of murdered millions could declare! Here, it seems, that for the art of aiding nature in her efforts to remove disease, which had been practised with a tolerable degree of consistency, and with astonishing success, by Hippocrates and Galen, was sub- stituted the general use of poisons, which, however, in other respects agree in ‘suddenly and rapidly extinguishing a great portion of the vitality of the system!’ O, what a falling off was there !
‘“¢ Permutations in the extent of depletion, or the quantity of poison to be given, the particular articles containing it, the locality or the manner of the applications, the stage of the disease, or the hour of the day to be chosen for operation, have indeed been studied, and tried, and guessed at; but still the chief practice consists in bleeding, blistering, cutting, burning, physicking, poisoning in some shape or other; inso- much that old ‘Time long ago hung up his scythe as useless.”
The veterinary science was ushered into existence by men who practised according to the doctrines of the theoretical schools. We may trace it in its infancy when, in England, in the year 1788, it was rocked in the cradle of Allopathy by Sainbel, its texture varying to suit the skill of Clark, Law- rence, Field, Blaine, and Coleman; yet with all their amount of talent and wisdom, their pupils must acknowledge that the melancholy triumph of disease over its victims clearly evinces that their combined stock of knowledge is insufficient
CAUSES OF COMPLAINT. 19
to perfect the veterinary science. Dr. J. Bell says, ‘ Anato- my is the basis of medical skill;’’ yet, in another part of his work, he says, ‘‘ It enables the physician to evzss at the seat, or causes, or consequences of disease!” 'This is what we propose hereafter to call the science — the science of guess- ing! If such is the immense mortality (as Mr. Youatt states) in England, —a country that boasts of her veterinary insti- tutions, and embraces within her medical halo some of the brightest luminaries of the present century, — what, we ask, is the mortality in the United States, where the veterinary science scarcely has an existence, and where not one man in a hundred can tell a disease of the bowels from one of the lungs? Profiting by the experience of these men, we are in hopes to build up a system of practice that will stand a tower of strength amid the rude shock of medical theories. We have discovered that the lancet is a powerful depressor of vitality, and that poisons derange, instead of producing, healthy action. 'That they are generally resorted to in this country, no one will deny, and often by men who are un-_ acquainted with the nature of the destructive agents they are making use of. 'The common practice of administering aloes, in diseases resulting from a common cold, is just as destruc- tive as poisoning and bloodletting. Dr. J. Boutall, V. S., of London, states that “aloes given to a horse that is laboring under a cold is likely to produce glanders.”’
Dr. Vines, demonstrator of anatomy in the Royal College, states that ‘‘ physicking a horse when there is a discharge from the nostrils will produce glanders.” 'The author has known death to result from the administration of a ball containing eight drachms of aloes and one drachm of calomel. A friend informed us that he occasionally puts up physic balls for horses containing three ounces of aloes. An eminent profes- sor has said that ‘ purgatives, besides being uncertain and uncontrollable, often kill from the dangerous iritation and debility they produce.” The good results that sometimes follow the exhibition of drastic purges, antimony, &c., must be attributed to the sanative action of the constitution of the
20 CAUSES OF COMPLAINT.
animal, though it be an agent injurious in its nature, and it depends, in all cases, on the existing ability of the vital power to counteract its effects.
We are told by the professors of allopathy that their medi- cines constitute a class of deadly poisons, and when given in large doses, destroy life; ‘yet if given with a scientific hand, and in small doses, they cure disease.”” We deny their power to cure. If antimony, corrosive sublimate, &c., ever proved destructive, they always possess that power, and can never be used with any degree of assurance that they will promote the healthy secretions. What difference does it make whether poisons are given by the scientific or the unscientific? Does it alter the tendency which all poisons possess, namely, that of rapidly depriving the system of vitality.
Many of the farming community, and owners of horses, to whom the author has made known his system, are in favor of the reform; they are determined to have a safer system of medication.
The author has received numerous communications, from individuals in different parts of the United States, encour- aging him to proceed in the good work. ‘The following extracts will show that there is need of reform, and that the harvest is ripe.
Extract of a letter from the Hon. H. Clay, dated
PuitaDELpuia, JVov. 25, 1849. There is no department in the medical world in which there is such a lamentable want of knowledge as that of the proper treatment of Horses and Cattle. Whoever shall sup- ply this deficiency ought to be regarded as a great benefactor, and I shall be very glad if your exertions shall entitle you to
that merit. With great respect, I am your ob’t servant, Dr. Gro. H. Dapp. H. CLAY.
Pirtsrietp, Dec. 10, 1849. Dear Sir: I received your letter explaining the princ- ples on which you propose to reform veterinary science. You
CAUSES OF COMPLAINT. 21
have my thanks, and, in my opinion, are entitled to the thanks of the community for entering upon this important work. While the subject has engaged the attention of scientific men in other countries, it has been too long neglected in our own. Cruelty and ignorance have marked our treatment to diseased animals. Ignorant himself both of the disease and the rem- edy, the owner has been in the habit of administering the popular remedy of every neighbor who had no better powers of knowing what should be done than himself, until the poor animal, if the disease would not have proved fatal, is left alone, until death, with a friendly hand, puts a period to his sufferings; he is, however, often destroyed by the amount or destructive character of the remedies, or else by the cruel mode of administering them. Iam persuaded that the com- munity will approve of your exertions, and find it to their interest to support and sustain your system. Wishing you great success, I am yours truly, G. H. Dapp, M. D. GEO. N. BRIGGS.
Lawrence Acapemy, Groton, Vov. 19, 1848. Dr. Dapp: Sir— Your letter and circular were duly re- ceived. In no profession, perhaps, has quackery prevailed more than in the medical, and in no branch of medicine more than in horse and cattle doctoring. But we are seeing better days; when your principles shall become known, improve- ment must be rapid, especially when such a wide field is
open. Very truly yours, J. MEANS.
92 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE.
GENERAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE.
Ar the head of the many varieties of the Horse stands the equus caballus, or common horse. Although there are many varieties of hoofed animals, the horse is distinguished from other animals by having the quadrupedal phalanges united and surrounded with a hoof, which does not admit of its grasping any thing. Hence these animals of the tribe ungulata, or hoofed, having but one toe, belong to the tribe:solipeda, or single-hoofed.
The original country of the horse cannot now with cer- tainty be ascertained, although many naturalists think that he is indigenous to most countries, for he is to be found in different temperatures, and varying in size and utility.
The precise time when this animal was first domesticated is very uncertain. 'The sacred writings inform us, that, when Jacob went into Egypt to procure corn, he sent up oxen, camels, and asses. Chariots and horses, however, appear to have been used by Pharaoh, when that prince lost his army in the Red Sea., Greece, doubtless, amongst other things, learned the art of subduing these animals from the Egyptians. History informs us that horse and chariot races were highly esteemed at their games, and Homer mentions them as early as the Trojan war. Wild horses have been found in count- less droves in the great plains of Tartary. Solomon, in his traffic with foreign nations, would have obtained Arabian horses, if in his day they had been as highly esteemed as now; but we are told that Egypt furnished him. Mahomet, at the commencement of his career, did not possess any cav- alry. Indeed, we are credibly informed, that, when presents were made to the Arabian princes, even as late as the fourth century, horses were considered the most acceptable offering ; from which circumstance we may conclude, that, however superior the present breed of horses in that country may be, the climate and industry have brought these animals to that esteem in which they are at present held. The Romans, in
“EXTERNAL CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. 23
their conquests, extended the general use of the horse, and appear to have applied themselves to its improvement.
EXTERNAL CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE.
Tue head is one of the first parts of the horse that will convey to judges the quality of the breed. Nothing of beau- ty can surpass the prominent outlines of the head of the high- mettled blood horse, which is small, lean, and angular; the forehead proportionally broad; the ears small and pointed ; the eyes full and prominent ; the lips deep, firm, by no means hanging loose ; the nostrils open and wide; and the mouth not too small.
The neck should rise from the chest with a moderate curve, and be neither too long nor too short; horses with a short, thick neck possess great strength, but are seldom noted for speed. From the top of the neck rises the mane, which nature appears to have added as an ornament and beauty to this noble animal. The shoulders should run ina slanting direction forward from the withers to the shoulder points, and should be muscular, but not heavy, as they are particularly essential to the movements of the horse. Be- tween the points of the shoulder lies the chest, which should be moderately expansive and prominent, in order to allow the lungs to have a free action.
The trunk, from the ribs nearest the chest, should be wide towards the back, and generally deepened, in order to give the form which is termed deep in the girths ; and as the ribs decrease in size, they ought to be more circular, which gives the belly a round appearance, and is more esteemed, not only for the beauty, but because it is accounted more healthy. The loins cannot be too broad and full, especially when strength is required; they should be more rounded and long ; the tail should form a graceful curve with the loins. The fore legs are straight, gradually approaching each other as
24 EXTERNAL CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE.
they descend to the feet; the arm should be muscular and large; when small, it generally denotes want of strength ; the knee large and flat, and the shank muscular and firm, and by no means fleshy. The thighs of the horse should be exceed- ingly strong and muscular ; the stifle should be of considerable length, as that denotes speed. The hock is the most material joint of the animal, and should be broad and wide; it is subject to many diseases, and ought to be well looked to. The feet also require attention, and are more frequently mis- shapen; they should not be too upright, which tends to open the heel, and thus the feet become faulty and diseased ; the horn should be of considerable size, otherwise the foot is easily hurt, and rendered unhealthy. By reference to plate No. 1, the reader may become acquainted with the bony structure of this noble animal.
On the Teeth. —A horse has forty teeth when he has completed his full number; a mare usually only thirty-six. The horse has, during life, two sets of teeth —a temporary and a permanent set. ‘The first appears shortly after birth; the others appear gradually, as the temporary set fall out; and the change is completed about the fifth year. These two sets of teeth appear at an interval of a few years be- tween them; yet the rudiments of both are formed nearly at the same period. It is essentially necessary that there should be two sets of teeth ; for, as they grow but slowly in propor- tion to the jaws, had there been but one set, the disproportion in growth between the teeth and jaws must have separated and made them wide apart as the jaws increased. The manner in which the temporary teeth are removed is very curious ;—— it is occasioned by the pressure of the permanent teeth upon the roots of the former; this causes a gradual absorption of the roots, so that, after a time, having no sup- port, they fall out. The teeth are covered with a hard sub- stance called enamel ; this enamel surrounds the tooth, and is indented or sunk into it, forming a pit, or hollow, which preserves the body of the tooth from being injured. In pro- cess of time, however, the enamel is worn down below the
PROGRESS OF THE VETERINARY ART IN ENGLAND. 25
hollow, and a brown mark appears on them, which indicates age. ‘To ascertain the age of a horse, see AcE, part second.
PROGRESS OF THE VETERINARY ART IN ENGLAND.
ENeLanp appears to have been almost the last, among the nations of Kurope, which encouraged the study of this use- ful profession. In the year 1788, proposals for establishing a veterinary school in London were published by M. V. de Sain- bel, who had previously received a professional education at the Royal College at Lyons. These proposals received no attention. In 1789, he published fresh proposals to read lec- tures on the veterinary science. These met with no better success. In 1790, a plan for establishing an institution for teaching the art was published, and produced a good effect, and ultimately led to the formation of the Veterinary College of London.
Among the first of the medical profession, who subscribed towards the support of this institution, were Drs. J. Hunter and Crawford. These distinguished surgeons saw its impor- tance, as opening a field for the cultivation of comparative anatomy, which was the cause of their rendering it all the assistance in their power.
It is also stated that the Duke of Northumberland was elected president, and contributed the sum of five hundred guineas towards the support of this most useful institution.
Among the names of the first pupils who entered the col- lege are Clark, Lawrence, Field, and Blain. The latter was educated as a human surgeon. A medical committee was shortly afterwards appointed, consisting of the most distin- guished practitioners in London, by whom the pupils were examined, and if found to have acquired a sufficient knowl- edge of the art, certificates were granted.
Professor Coleman likewise succeeded in procuring the patronage of government; and for several successive years a
a
26 PROGRESS OF THE VETERINARY ART IN ENGLAND.
sum of money was voted by the Parliament, towards the aid of the institution. George the Third granted the rank of commissioned officers to such as might be appointed to.regi- ments. About the year 1827, the directors of the Hast India Company, observing the good effect produced by the appoint- ment of veterinary surgeons to the British cavalry, were like- wise induced to grant the like appointment to young men who might think fit to join the native India regiments.
A course of lectures is still given by the professors through- out the season; the pupils are still examined by a medical committee. Demonstrations in anatomy, &c., are given daily, and the pupils have the advantage of dissecting subjects themselves, and also of seeing the practice of the infirmary.
The following is from one of the works of the first pro- fessors: “We know that physicians of all ages applied them- selves to the dissection of animals, and that it was almost entirely by analogy that those of Greece and Rome judged of the structure of the human body. We are told that Herophilus and Erasistratus studied anatomy on the human frame some centuries before the Christian era, and that the former even dissected living subjects, having obtained the bodies of malefactors for that purpose. On the other hand, it is abundantly proved by history, that the great progress in auatomy, till within a few centuries, was made by the dis- section of brutes. A superstitions reverence for the dead, which prevailed for many centuries, confined the Greeks and Arabians to the dissection of apes and quadrupeds. Galen has given us the anatomy of the ape for that of man; and it is evident that his dissections were restricted to brutes, when he says that if learned physicians have been guilty of gross error, it was because they neglected to dissect animals. Erasistratus was the first who discovered the lacteals in kids, which he opened a short time after they had sucked. He observed the valves of the heart, and demonstrated, con- trary to the opinion of Plato, that there was, behind the wind- pipe, a canal or passage, viz., the esophagus, whose office was to convey food into the stomach. Rufus of Ephesus, we
PROGRESS OF THE VETERINARY ART IN ENGLAND. 27
are told, described those two ducts, the discovery of which is attributed to Fallopius, and from him are called the Fallopian tubes. 'These he discovered in dissecting the womb of a ewe, and adds, that he strongly suspects them to be seminal vessels, and of the same nature with those of the male. Galen demonstrated, in Rome, on living animals, the organs of sound and respiration; he made several observations on the brain of animals ; he also showed the effect produced by ligature on the recurrent nerves. Vesalius proved, by experi- ment on animals, that it was possible to restore suspended animation, by inflating the lungs artificially, which discovery has saved the lives of many individuals. Croon and Hook, two English physicians, repeated the same experiments, a century afterwards, and with success. Wharton, a physician of London, discovered the salivary glands in an ox.
In 1659, Eustachius was the first who found out the tho- racic duct in the horse; a hundred years afterwards, the same canal was discovered in man by the immortal Harvey. Dr. Wren, professor of the University of Oxford, made several experiments on living animals, to be assured of the effect of different substances on the blood and solid parts, the result of which experiments was to confirm the discovery of Har- vey, which for the space of forty years was strenuously opposed. Gesner Aselius, professor of anatomy at Pavia, repeated the discovery of the lacteal veins in the mesentery, in brute bodies, which had formerly been known to Erasis- tratus and Herophilus. Pecquet traced them to the thorax, and completed his discovery by that of the thoracic duct. It was in the body of brutes, also, that Bartholinus discovered the vasa lymphatica.
Stenon, a native of Copenhagen, but afterwards physician to Ferdinand the Second, Grand Duke of Tuscany, discovered, in 1661, the excretory ducts of the lachrymal glands in the eye of a sheep. Malpighi and Bellini, in 1665, described the organs of taste in quadrupeds. Observations on the organs of feeling were first made on the skins of brutes, and after- wards verified on the human skin. Weiff made experiments
28 PROGRESS OF THE VETERINARY ART IN ENGLAND.
on the hearts of living animals, to prove that the auricles were equal. In 1641, Hoffman discovered the excretory duct of the pancreas in a turkey-cock. The peristaltic motion of the intestines was first discovered in animals. In short, the greater part of the functions in the human frame were first made known by the general analogy subsisting between the functions of animal organization. From what has been here written, though in a summary manner, it appears that the science is efficient in itself, and has given unequivocal proofs of its ability to enlarge the boundaries of general medicine.
Veterinary Surgeon Percival, in his introductory remarks to a series of elementary lectures on veterinary science, in drawing a comparison between such practitioners who have carefully studied anatomy, and those who have not, very truly observes, that no man supposes his watch can be repaired at the anvil, though there are those who send their horses to the blacksmith to be cured of their diseases. They know that the man is unacquainted with the mechanism of a watch; and yet they trust him with a machine, to which, in point of complication, a watch can as little be compared as a rattle can toa watch. Why, then, are men so blind? Is it thata horse is of less value than a watch? No! It is owing to the vile trash diffused as treatises on farriery, so truly disgust- ing to a man of common reflection, that he forms his opinion of the art by those he entertains of the book. ‘Miserable animal!” says Sainbel, “bereft of speech, thou canst not complain, when, to the disease with which thou art afllicted, excruciating torments are superadded by ignorant men, who at first sight, and without a knowledge of thy structure, pro- nounce in thy case, and then proceed with all expedition to open thy veins, lacerate thy flesh, cauterize thy sinews, and drench thy stomach with drugs opposed to the cure they engage to perform.”
A veterinary school has lately been established in Scot- land, where every thing that it behooves the practitioner to know is taught; and, more recently, that excellent and truly liberal institution, the University of London, has admitted a
“OUTLINES OF ANATOMY IN THE HORSE. 29
veterinary school under its roof; and, on the same extended plan, the beneficial results of this will be, that the diseases of cattle and sheep, hitherto so disgracefully neglected, will be better understood, and the dreadful loss which the country sustains will be materially diminished.
OUTLINES OF ANATOMY IN THE HORSE.
DESCRIPTION OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE DIFFERENT ORGANS.
Tue animal organization is divided into bones, muscles, arteries, veins, nerves, and viscera.
The bones are hard and durable, and are intended to form a framework for the support of the softer portions. When divested of the soft portions, they form the skeleton. The bones are united together by ligamentary and fibrous attach- ments, which allow free motion one upon another. The articulating surfaces of the joints are covered with a cushion or cartilage, and lubricated with a fluid called synovia, which permits them to move freely on each other, without friction. Their name and location will be found on referring to the engraving of the skeleton, accompanying page 12.
The muscles are the soft, red, fibrous masses called flesh. They are susceptible of contraction and relaxation; or, in other words, become shorter and longer, and are subject to the will of the animal: for this reason, they are termed vol- untary muscles.
Besides these, there are other parts which owe their power of contraction to the vital power; yet there is a peculiar arrangement about some of their muscular fibres. Thus the heart is a muscular texture, forming a circular muscle; and the urinary bladder, stomach, intestines, &c., — which are en- abled to contract upon their contents and expel them, whether the animal wills it or not, — are termed involuntary muscles.
The muscles of respiration, being, in some measure, under
30 OUTLINES OF ANATOMY IN THE HORSE.
the influence of the will, are said to have a mixed motion. If we examine the fibres of muscles attentively, we find them not in straight, but in zigzag lines, which explains how they are able to contract and expand. ‘These fibres may be divid- ed and subdivided, until they are too small for the naked eye to see ; they are then called fascia, and these fascia are again united to form muscle. In a work of this description, which is intended for the non-professional, the author deems it un- necessary to detail the names of the different muscles, which would involve an amount of matter incompatible with the present limits. Suffice it to say, that the names of the vol- untary muscles depend on their size, form, use, the arrange- ment of their fibres, or their origin and insertion.
Nerves are long, firm, white cords, which ramify after the manner of blood-vessels, and are distributed to all parts of the animal. They issue from the brain, medulla oblongata, and spinal marrow. They consist of fascicula, or bundles of dis- tinct fibres, closely connected together, and covered with a membrane called neurtlema. 'They divide into branches, twigs, and threads, which again subdivide into filaments. They are named from their origin, use, and form. ‘Thus those that issue from the brain are called cerebral ; others, again, from the spinal cord, are called spinal ; those in the region of the neck are called cervical ; others, issuing from other parts of the spinal column towards the extremities, are called lumbar, dorsal, and sacral. These names correspond to their locations. See Nerves, part second.
If a nervous cord is cut through, as in nerving, or com- pressed with force, so as to intercept all communication with the brain, and the foot to which it is distributed, that part becomes paralyzed. In nerving horses or cattle, the sensi- bility of the foot is wholly or partly destroyed, according to the nature of the operation.
Veins are the vessels that return the blood to the heart. The texture of veins is much more slender than that of arteries, yet they possess considerable strength, and though sometimes distended to their utmost capacity, seldom burst.
PHYSIOLOGY. 31
The veins generally accompany the arteries; but as the former are subject to pressure from the muscles, they are more numerous than arteries. The veins are provided with valves, which appear to be a duplicature of their inner coat rising into a fold. In the human subject, there are two of these folds to form a valve ; but in the horse, there are three: these, when the blood by pressure, or a contraction of the capillary structure, is arrested in its course, prevent it from returning.
The arteries are vessels that carry the blood to all parts of the system, for the purpose of supplying the waste that is continually going on. They become narrower as they pro- ceed towards the extremities, and are furnished with an elastic, a muscular, and a membranous coat. Arteries have a pulsat- ing motion communicated to them by the impulse of the heart, by which they are distinguished from veins.
The viscera are certain organs, comprising a great part of the structure of the animal, ordinarily lodged in cavities, as in the head, the chest, the pelvis, and abdomen.
The head contains the brain, from which issue the organs of taste, smell, hearing, sight, &c. The chest is bounded by the ribs, spinal column, breast bone, and diaphragm, called midrif. It contains the organs of respiration and circula- tion. ‘The abdomen contains the organs of digestion. The pelvis contains the urinary organs, the rectum, and most of the organs of generation.
PHYSIOLOGY.
DESCRIPTION OF THE USES OF THE DIFFERENT ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE HORSE.
Nutrition. —'The living body is constantly losing its con- stituent parts; this waste requires to be made up by the addition of new matter; and when the stomach, and other parts concerned in the process of nutrition and digestion, are
32 PHYSIOLOGY.
in a healthy state, and there is a due supply of food, then this renovation is continually going on. Nutrition may be interrupted by various causes, which will be discussed in the articles Frenine, APPETITE, &c.
Digestion. — This is a chemico-vital action, and is the most extraordinary phenomenon we can contemplate, and worthy the attention of those for whom this work is mainly written. Every part of the animal is formed from the blood, which is first formed from the food.
Mastication.— The animal, by means of the teeth, grinds or breaks up the food. During the process, it is moistened by a fluid called saliva, which is secreted by glands fitted for that purpose. This moistening is essential to the passage of the food down the gullet, or esophagus, into the stomach, and afterwards, probably, assists the process of digestion. Some- times horses have projections on the grinding teeth, by which mastication is rendered painful and difficult; the food is im- perfectly chewed, and therefore difficult of digestion. This is injurious to the stomach and bowels, and consequently the general health suffers.
Chymification. — 'The food, having been properly moistened. with saliva, is, by means of the tongue, with the assistance of the muscles, pharynx, and gullet, conveyed into the stomach. Here the food undergoes the first process of di- gestion, and is converted into a pulpy mass, called chyme. The agent in converting food into chyme is the gastric juice, which is secreted from the inner walls of the stomach. This fluid has a remarkably solvent power, and when the horse is in health, acts on the ordinary articles of food. Cases are on record where the gastric juice had corroded and dissolved the coats of the stomach, after death ; yet it cannot act on any thing while it retains vitality. Thus we often find bots in the stomach, and worms in the intestines, that live and generate, unhurt, by that fluid; yet the moment they are deprived of vitality, they are digested or dissolved.
As the chyme passes from the stomach through its lower orifice, called pylorus, it enters the first of the small intestines,
PHYSIOLOGY. 33
called duodenum. Here it meets with two fluids, one secreted by the liver, called gall or bile, and the other secreted by the pancreas or sweetbread, called pancreatic juice. 'The fluids from both are conveyed into the duodenum by small tubes or canals. Immediately after the admixture of the chyme with the fluids, it begins to separate into two distinct portions, one consisting of the nutritious portion, called the chyle, and the other the refuse portion, part of which forms the excrement. Absorption of the Chyle. —'The intestines are composed, in a great measure, of muscular fibres, some of which run in a circular, and others in a longitudinal direction. When the fibres contract, the diameter of the canal is diminished ; and when the longitudinal fibres are in action, the canal is short- ened ; and by the combined action of these fibres, the food is gradually propelled through the whole length of the canal. The internal surface of the intestines consists of a nervous and vascular membrane, which is constantly forming a mu- cous substance for its own protection. In cases of constipa- tion and colic, this secretion is so abundant as to be discharged in considerable quantity with the dung. ‘There is also, on the inner surface of the intestines, an immense number of minute vessels, called lacteals, by which the chyle is sucked up or absorbed. ‘The lacteals terminate on the inner surface of the intestines by small tubes, with open mouths. These tubes are full of little valves, which prevent the return of chyle. In passing through these canals, the fluid traverses small bodies, called mesenteric glands. Eventually, the whole of the lacteals terminate in a vessel called the thoracic duct, from thence into one of the jugular veins,* into which it empties. The chyle thus mixes with the venous blood in the veins, and goes with it to the lungs, where, coming in contact with atmospheric air, it is deprived of its carbon, and assumes the character of pure arterial blood. There are other vessels that empty into the thoracic duct, called lymphatics; these, with the lacteals, form what is termed the absorbent system.
* It enters the subclavian vein in the human being.
5
34 PHYSIOLOGY.
The lymphatics carry a fluid called lymph, which is a limpid fluid, and found in all parts of the body. They take up substances that are applied to their mouths; thus the moisture within the abdomen, and other cavities, or poisons rubbed on the hide, are taken into the system. The absorb- ents also assist in this process, the latter taking up all the useless matter, and conveying it into the blood, that it may be thrown off by the skin and kidneys, in the form of urine and perspiration.
The external surface of the intestines consists of perito- neum, a membrane from which the viscera of the abdomen derive their external coat. The peritoneum forms also a kind of sac, in which they are enclosed. The first portion of intestine-duodenum - is about twenty inches in length. The next is named jejunum; the third illium: this terminates in the cecum, or first of the large intestines: here there is a looseness of the internal coat, which allows it to be formed into folds, and effectually prevents the return of excrement into the small intestines. 'The second of the large intestines is named colon. It is small at its commencement, but soon after enlarges into a very capacious canal, which, when it has passed nearly around the abdomen, again forms a second, but slight contraction ; after which it again enlarges, when, less- ening a third time, it terminates in the rectum. The anus, or fundament, is the termination of the rectum, and is shut by a circular muscle, termed sphincter, which surrounds the end of the gut.
Circulation of the Blood. — Having given the reader some idea of the manner in which the blood is made, we will now consider its properties, and explain how it is propelled and distributed to every part of the animal.
The appearance of blood is familiar to most persons. We have already stated that it contains the elements for building up and nourishing the whole animal structure. On examin- ing blood with a microscope, it is found full of little red globules, which vary in their size and shape in different ani- mals, and are more numerous in warm than in cold blooded
("38 )
Plate No. 3.
THE HEART VIEWED EXTERNALLY.
” > : 5 : an rs { (KC KK q adie SY
tame (ee 7 C i S
| |
f | \ \ |
‘
I Mi i ee
a, the left ventricle; 6, the right ventricle; c, e, f, the aorta; g, h, 7, the carotid and other arteries springing from the aorta; 4, the pulmonary artery; Z, branches of the pulmonary artery in the lungs; m, m, the pulmonary veins emptying into the left auricle; m, the right auricle; o, the ascending vena cava; g, the descending vena cava; 7, the left auricle; s, the coronary vein and artery. See CircuLATION OF THE Boop, on the opposite page.
36 PHYSIOLOGY.
animals: probably this arises from the fact that the latter absorb less oxygen. If the blood of one animal be trans- fused into another, it will frequently cause death,
When blood stands for a time after being drawn, it sepa- rates into two parts. One is called serum, and resembles the white of an egg; the other is the clot or crassamentum, and forms the red coagulum, or jelly-like substance: this is ac- companied by whitish, tough threads, called fibrine. When blood has been drawn from a horse, and it assumes a cupped or hollow form, if serum, or buffy coat, remain on its sur- face, it denotes an impoverished state; but if the whole, when coagulated, be of one uniform mass, it indicates a healthy state of this fluid. The blood of a young horse generally coagulates into a firm mass, while that of an old or debilitated one is generally less dense, and more easily divided or broken down. ‘The power that propels the blood into the different ramifications of the animal, is a mechanico-vital power, and is accomplished through the medium of the heart, which is a powerful muscular organ contained in the chest. From certain parts of it arteries arise ; in others the veins ter- minate ; and it is principally by its alternate contractions and expansions, aided, as already stated, by the vital power, that the circulation of the blood is carried on. ‘The heart is in- vested with a membranous bag, called pericardium, which adheres to the tendinous centre of the diaphragm, and to the great vessels at the base of the heart. The heart is lubricated by a serous fluid within the pericardium, which guards against friction. In dropsical affections, the quantity of this fluid is considerably increased, and constitutes a disease called dropsy of the heart. The heart is divided into four cavities, viz., two auricles, named from their resemblance to an ear, and two ventricles, (as seen in plate 3, a 6,) forming the body. The left ventricle is smaller than the right ; but its sides are much thicker and stronger: it is from this part that the grand trunk of the arteries proceeds, called the great aorta, (i. e., f, plate 3.) The right cavity, or ventricle, is the receptacle for the blood that is brought back by the veins after going the
PHYSIOLOGY. 37
rounds of the circulation ; which, like an inverted tree, become larger and less numerous as they approach the heart, where they terminate in the right auricle. The auricle on the left side of the heart receives the blood that has been distributed through the lungs for purification. Where the veins terminate in auricles, there are valves placed. The coronary vein, which enters the right auricle, has its mouth protected by a valve called semilunar, or half-moon shape, which opens only towards the heart, and prevents the blood taking a retrograde course. The different tubes coming from and entering into the heart, are also provided with valves to prevent the blood from returning. For example, the blood proceeds out of the heart, along the aorta, (see plate ;) the valve opens upwards, the blood also moves upwards, and pushes the valve asunder, and passes through ; the pressure from above effectually closes the passage. The valves of the heart are composed of elastic cartilage, which enables them to work with ease. In some diseases, however, they become ossified. This, of course, is fatal. The heart and its appendages are also subject to other diseases, called dilatation, softening, hardening, &c. Now, the blood, having been brought from all parts of the system by the veins, enters into the vena cava, (see plate 3, fig. 0, q, ascending and descending portion,) which empty themselves into the right auricle; and this, when distended with blood, contracts, and forces its contents into the right ventricle, which, contracting in its turn, propels the blood into the pul- monary arteries, (see plate,) whose numerous ramifications bring it in contact with the air-cells of the lungs. It then assumes a crimson color, and is then adapted to build up and supply the waste. Having passed through the vessels of the lungs, it continues on, and passes into the left auricle: this also contracts, and forces the blood through a valve into the left ventricle. This ventricle then contracts in its turn, and the blood passes through another valve into the great aorta, from which it is distributed into the whole arterial structure: after going the rounds of the circulation, it is again returned to the heart by the veins.
38 PHYSIOLOGY.
Respiration and Structure of the Lungs. —'The organs of respiration are the larynx, the upper opening of which is named glottis, the trachea or windpipe, bronchia, and the lungs.
The air is displaced out of the lungs by the action of the muscles of respiration; and when these relax, the lungs ex- pand by their elasticity. ‘This may be exemplified by means of a sponge, which may be compressed into a small bulk by the hand, but, upon opening the hand, the sponge returns to its natural size, and all its cavities become filled with air. The purification of the blood in the lungs is of vital impor- tance, and indispensably necessary to the due performance of all the functions. When the lungs, and muscles connected with them, are in a physiological state, the horse is said to be in good wind —a very desirable state for an animal to be in, whose usefulness depends on his being capable of a long continuance of quick motion. The trachea, or windpipe, after dividing into bronchia, again subdivides into innumera- ble other branches, the extremities of which compose an infinite quantity of small cells, which, with the ramifications of the veins, arteries, nerves, lymphatics, and the connecting cellular membrane, make up the whole mass or substance of the lungs. The internal surface of the windpipe, bronchia, and air-cell, is lined with a membrane, which secretes a mucous fluid: when, in consequence of an obstructed sur- face, this fluid becomes abundant, it is expelled by the nos- trils. ‘The whole is invested with a thin, transparent mem- brane, named pleura: the same membrane lines the internal surface of the ribs and diaphragm, and, by a duplicature of its folds, forms a separation between the lobes of the lungs.
Glandular Secretions.— Liver. This is the largest gland in the animal economy; it secretes from the blood a fluid
called bile; it is conveyed by numerous small tubes into a -
larger one, in which they terminate: this is named hepatic, or biliary duct. In the human body, and in most quadrupeds, there is another duct, branching off from this, which termi- nates in a gall bladder, from which the bile is expelled ; but
PHYSIOLOGY. 39
in the horse there is simply one duct, which conveys the bile, as already stated, into the duodenum, where it assists in the process of chylification.
Kidneys. Their office is to convey or secrete the super- fluous fluids and excrementitious parts of the blood in the form of urine. In man, the skin is the great outlet of the body, and the kidneys are one of a secondary order; but in some animals, the kidneys are the principal parts concerned in car- rying off the impurities of the blood. When horses are allowed an unlimited quantity of hay and water, or when they are fed on improper food, and the skin obstructed, the urine will be voided in large quantities — thick, turbid, deficient in quality, and having a peculiar stinking smell. From a cavity in the centre of each kidney, a canal or tube proceeds, by which the urine is conveyed into the bladder. ‘These tubes are named ureters. As the ureters enter the bladder, they pass forward a short distance between its coats; which course effectually prevents the urine from flowing back into the ureters. The urine is expelled by the muscular power which the bladder possesses of contracting upon its contents. The horse’s kid- neys are readily affected by diuretic medicines, and many valuable horses are ruined by the too frequent use of nitre and rosin. ‘These articles are indirect diuretics; they cause a large secretion of urine, but do not provide for the excretion. In such cases, the bladder may be distended beyond its usual capacity ; its fibres may become lacerated, and thus be in- capable of contracting on its contents. Disease of the kid- neys sometimes happens in consequence of excessive exertion, or strain of the loins ; and sometimes peritoneal disease spreads to the kidneys.
There are other glands scattered over the system, of equal importance ; yet, in the present state of veterinary knowl- edge, the author deems it unnecessary to refer to them.
Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye. — The parts which compose the eye are divided into external and internal. 'The external parts are, first, the eyelashes, or cilia, which, in the horse, can scarcely be reckoned more than one, there being
AO PHYSIOLOGY.
very few hairs in the under eyelid ; secondly, the eyelids, or palpebree, upper and under: where they join outwardly, it is termed the external canthus, and inwardly towards the nose, the internal canthus: they cover and defend the eyes. The cartilaginous margin or rim of the eyelid, from which the eyelashes proceed, is named tarsus. In the tarsus and inter- nal surface of the eyelid there are small glands, which secrete a fluid, to prevent friction of the eye and its lids, and facili- tate motion. Thirdly, the lachrymal gland, which is placed on the upper part of the eyelid towards the external canthus ; from this gland the tears are secreted, and conveyed to the inner surface of the upper eyelid by several minute ducts, or canals, named lachrymal ducts. There is another small body, having a glandular appearance, in the inner corner of the eye ; on each side of which there are small orifices, which are called puncta lachrymalia: these are the mouths or openings of two small canals, which, joining together, form a membranous tube; and this, passing through a small opening in the bone, extends to the lower part of the nostril, where its termination may be distinctly seen in the horse. As the lachrymal gland is constantly forming tears, it must be obvious that some contrivance is necessary to convey them off, and prevent them flowing over the cheek: this purpose is answered by the canal just described.
When any irritating matter is applied to the eye, the tears are formed too abundantly to be carried off in this way; they then flow over the cheek. In the human eye, the puncta lachrymalia terminate in a small sac, from which the lachry- mal duct proceeds: this is not the case in the horse. In the inner corner of the horse’s eye is placed a body commonly termed the haw, no resemblance to which is to be found in the human eye. The horse has the power, by means of the muscles of the eye, to bring the haw completely over its surface ; it serves, therefore, as a second eyelid, and effectu- ally wipes off any dust, hay, or seeds, or other matter which may have fallen upon the eye. The conjunctive membrane, or tunica conjunctiva, lines the inner surface of the eyelids,
PHYSIOLOGY. Al
and covers the white part of the globe of the eye. This membrane has numerous blood-vessels, which are conspicuous when it is inflamed. The bulb or globe of the eye is com- posed of several coats and humors. The transparent cornea, which, in the horse, forms the front part of the eye, com- prehends a larger part of the globe than in the human subject; on removing this cornea, a fluid, which is named the aqueous humor, escapes, and the iris appears. The iris is a muscular curtain, having ahole in the centre, which is termed the pupil. This divides the fore part of the eye into two parts, named chambers, which are occupied by the aqueous humor. The pupil is of a dark bluish cast; is of an oval, or rather of an oblong form. The iris regulates the quantity of light that is required to pass through the pupil. For this purpose, it is composed of two sets of muscular fibres; by means of one the pupil is enlarged, and by the other it is diminished. Thus, if the pupil is first examined in the stable, where there is a moderate light, and immediately after in the sunshine, it will be found quite altered ; being so small, in a strong light, as to be nearly closed. On removing the iris, the second humor, or crystalline lens, appears: this is retained in its situation by a transparent membrane, named its capsule, between which and the lens is a minute quantity of fluid. The third humor of the eye is the vitreous. This humor is not contained in one general sac, but in numerous minute and perfectly trans- parent cells, and resembles pure water: this humor serves to produce a small degree of refraction in the rays of light, and occupies and distends all the posterior part of the globe of the eye. The next coat to the conjunctive is the sclerotica, or white of the eye, a strong, thick membrane, which extends from the transparent cornea to the optic nerve. ‘The next coat to the sclerotic is the choroid. This is a delicate and very vascular membrane. In the human eye, it appears of a black color, and it is this which causes the pupil of the human eye to appear black; but the choroid coat of the horse’s eye is variegated in color; in some parts black, in others blue; and in others green. The next coat is the 6
42 PHYSIOLOGY.
retina: this is a delicate expansion of the optic nerve over the choroid coat, which it accompanies to the margin of the crystalline lens, and there terminates.
The use of the retina is to receive certain impressions made by the light reflected from objects, so as to produce in the mind an idea of their figure and color; the optic nerve being the medium of communication between the retina and brain. From the above explanation of the mechanism of the eye, it will readily appear that many circumstances may occur to render vision imperfect, or to destroy it altogether. If the transparent cornea, for example, became white, light could not pass through it, and the animal would be blind, however perfect the other parts of the eye might be. The cornea may be either too convex. or too flat; in the former case, causing the animal to be near-sighted ; in the latter, produ- cing an indistinctness of vision with respect to objects that are near. The iris may, 1n consequence of disease, become fixed, or lose its power of motion; in which case, the pupil would be always of the same size, and the animal would not have the power of adapting it to the various distances or objects; or, as sometimes happens, the pupil may become quite closed, by which light would be perfectly excluded from the retina. Supposing the cornea and iris to be healthy, the crystalline lens, or its capsule, may become opaque, and thereby cause total blindness. But in this part, as in the cornea, we meet with different degrees of opacity : sometimes it is very slight, the pupil appearing of a lighter color, and unusually large: in this state, the pupil is said to look dull or muddy, which causes the horse to start; but when the opacity is complete, it constitutes the disease termed cataract. There is another disease, to which the reader’s attention is called ; it is named gutta serena, or amaurosis. This disease is known by the pupil being unusually large or open, and by its con- tinuing so when the eye is exposed to.a strong light.
_ Remarks on the Causes of Disease in the Eye. — Young horses, generally, are peculiarly liable to a disease called ophthalmia. Such as are got bya blind stallion, or bred from
ANATOMY. 43
a blind mare, are said to be more liable to it than others; yet all horses, if pent up in hot stables, fed high, and not sufficiently exercised, are liable to disease of the eye. Some- times a general derangement of the system, brought on by violent and excessive exertion, will terminate in a disease of the eye, or its membranes; also by standing still in cold wind or rain when the animal has been heated, and is sweating; or sluicing him with cold water, which is very much in fashion, since the Cochituate was introduced in this city. If wa- ter is used to cleanse the horse, he should be rubbed per- fectly dry, and the reactive powers provoked by friction with the brush.
Cure. —It is of the utmost importance to remove the cause, if possible: next adopt that system of management, with respect to feeding, exercise, grooming, and ventilation, laid down in this work. If the disease is hereditary, then the most scientific treatment, to say the most of it, is only palliative. The best lotion for the eye is an infusion of camomiles, or a mixture of one tablespoonful of vinegar to a pint of water, used occasionally with a clean sponge and a light hand. ‘The horse should be kept on a light diet of scalded shorts; darken the stable, and give the animal proper attention until the disease is subdued.
ANATOMY
OF THE FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION.
Tue vulva, or pudendum, is the slit commencing below the anus, and extending downward, forming a fissure. This fissure is longest and most conspicuous in breeding mares. The space between the anus and vulva is called the perineum. The prominences on each side of the vulva are called the labia pudendi. They owe their bulk principally to fatty substance.
A4A ANATOMY.
The commissures are the parts uniting the labia above and below. The superior or upper commissure is extended to a sharp angle, and joins the perineum; the lower portion is rounded off, and is bounded by a hollow, at the bottom of which is lodged the
Clitoris. —'This is brought into view immediately after staling : it bears a close comparison to the head of the male penis, and, like the latter, is susceptible of sensual enjoyment. To the clitoris belong a pair of muscles named erector clitoris. They take their origin from the perineum. ‘Their office is to erect that body, and protrude it into the vagina in the act of coition.
The internal parts are the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, fimbriz, and ovaria. The vagina is a musculo-membranous canal, of large dimensions, extending from the vulva to the uterus or womb.
It is situated within the pelvis, having the bladder below and the rectum above it, to both of which it has cellular attachments, in addition to the reciprocal connection with the peritoneum. 'To the rectum it is closely and firmly at- tached by cellular membrane.
The figure of the vagina, when it is distended, is that of an oblong cylinder ; but in the collapsed state, its sides are in contact, and it will vary its form according to the full or empty condition of the bladder. The largest part of the canal is the posterior; there it exceeds the dimensions of the bladder.
The length of the canal is about eighteen inches. Its course is horizontal, and rather shows an inclination to the curve of the rectum.
The vagina, at its commencement from the vulva, is much thicker in its walls than elsewhere; in composition, it is partly muscular and partly membranous. The orifice of it is clothed in that strong, red, circular, fleshy band, which forms the sphincter vagina; and the adjoining part of the canal is also encircled by some considerable fleshy covering,
ANATOMY. AS
and thickly coated with muscular fibres. Farther forward than this the vagina is composed of membrane.
The Membrane of the Vagina. — The part of which it is constituted is one of the mucous class, and one that pos- sesses considerable density, extensibility, and resistance. Its exterior surface is rough. Its interior is smooth, and has a pale pinkish cast; unless the mare be under the venereal cestrum, and then its redness is heightened, and its secretion augmented. In the ordinary state, this membrane is thrown into folds, larger in breeding mares than in others, technically called ruge.
Considerably in advance of the clitoris is an opening leading from the lower part of the canal, large enough to admit with ease any one of the fingers: this is the orifice of the meatus urinarius, or outlet of the bladder: it is guarded by a doubling of the vaginal membrane, which hangs over it, and serves the purpose of a valve.
The large and conspicuous protuberance at the bottom of the vagina, is the mouth of the uterus.
The uterus, or womb, is a hollow musculo-membranous organ, united to the anterior part of the vagina, and is des- tined for the reception of the fetus. We distinguish the uterus by the body, horns, neck, and mouth. 'The body is the oblong or cylindrical part, growing out of the anterior portion of the vagina, in the centre of which it is terminated internally by the os uteri, or mouth of the womb; it gives origin, in front, to the horns. This part lies wholly within the pelvis, between the bladder and rectum, and is entirely covered by peritoneum.
The cornua, or horns, rise from the body of the uterus, and diverge towards the loins. Their length and size will be much greater in breeding mares than in others. In figure they are cylindrical; they bend upwards in their course, and terminate in round extremities, to which are loosely appended the ovaries, or testicles, through the medium of the Fallopian tubes.
The cervix, or neck, of the uterus is the rugose portion
A6 ANATOMY.
protruded backward into the cavity of the vagina, which has a flower-like appearance, and can only be seen in a virgin uterus in the undistended state: during gestation it undergoes a remarkable change.
Independently of its union with the vagina, the uterus is confined in its place by two broad portions of peritoneum, which attach it to the sides of the pelvis, named the lateral ligaments of the uterus. During the period of gestation, the uterus experiences considerable extension. The Fallopian tubes are two trumpet-shaped canals, having a remarkable serpentine course ; running within the folds of the ligamenta lata, from the extremities of the horns to the ovaries.
The tube commences by an aperture in the cornu, having an elevated whitish margin, which is scarcely large enough to admit a small silver probe: from this it proceeds forward, folded in peritoneum, and extremely convoluted, until it reaches the ovary, to which it becomes attached; it then begins to enlarge in its diameter, grows less convoluted, and serpentines along the lower side of the ovary ; it afterwards ends in a fringed doubling of membrane.
‘The internal membrane of the tubes is similar to that of the uterus.
The ovaria, or female testicles, are two egg-shaped bodies, situated farther forward than the Fallopian tubes, within the cavity of the abdomen: they receive close coverings, and are loosely attached to the spine.
These bodies are about the size of walnuts. They are not regular oviform ; they have deep fissures on their sides; they bear a resemblance, at first view, to the testicles and their ducts in the male.
Internally, the ovaries are composed of a whitish spongy substance, in which are, in some instances, found little vesi- cles containing a yellowish glairy fluid, in others one or more dark yellow or brownish substances named corpora lutea : the vesicles are the ova, which, from impregnation, receive further development ; the corpora lutea denote the parts from which vesicles have burst, and consequently only exist in the
ANATOMY. 47
ovaries of those mares whose organs have been engaged in the generative process. Prior to the age of sexual intercourse, these bodies are small and white; but as soon as the season of copulation is at hand, they grow large, redden externally, and present many yellow spots or streaks through their sub- stance.
Mamme, though unconnected with the uterus, anatomi- cally speaking, are in function concurring to the same im- portant end. The mamme, vulgarly called udder, are two flattened oval-shaped bodies, depending, between the thighs, from the posterior and inferior part of the belly. In quadru- peds, with but few exceptions, this is the situation of the mamme.
In virgin mares the udder is so small that there hardly appears to be any. In mares who have had foals, the udder remains prominent or pendulous, and has a flabby feel.
Towards the latter part of gestation, this part swells, and becomes distinctly visible. Within a few days of foaling, the udder grows turgid with milk; it does not, however, acquire its full distention until the foal has drawn it for a few days, from which time it maintains its volume, with little variation, during the period of sucking. Soon after the foal begins to forsake the teat, the secretion of milk diminishes, and is followed by a contraction of the bag, which goes on gradually, until it has resumed nearly, or quite, its former flatness.
The interior of the mamme has a light yellowish aspect, and evidently possesses a lobulated structure, which is held together by a fine cellular tissue, interspersed with granules of fat. It is constituted of glandular masses, irregular in magnitude and form, and loosely connected one with another, each of which masses is composed of a number of lobules, closely compacted and united together. These insulated lobulous portions receive small arteries, from which the milk is secreted. The former, by repeatedly conjoining one with another, become at length several demonstrable canals, radiat- ing from every part, and dilating to hold the milk.
A8 ANATOMY.
When the udder becomes charged with milk, it flows into the teat and distends it. Suction is apparently an operation purely mechanical. The teat is seized and closely com- pressed by the lips of the foal; and the imbibing effort which follows has a tendency to produce a vacuum, or raise the valve at the upper part of the teat, and the milk passes from the reservoirs into the mouth.
ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION, MALE AND FEMALE.
The common object in the male and female organs of generation, is the development and reproduction of new beings. 'The copulative act is the essential first cause that therein the action of the organs is mutual and sympathetic, and that the result is the generation of a new animal, bearing a likeness to one or both parents, the office of the testicles being to furnish the fecundating liquor, called semen. ‘This is the most important part of the male apparatus. These organs do not descend into the scrotum for some time after birth, and do not carry on their glandular functions until the period of puberty. This epoch is marked in animals by luxu- riant growth of hair, particularly in the mane and tail, a peculiar odor of the body, and lustful passions.
The semen is secreted from the blood, and is a white viscous fluid, having a peculiar faint odour, and Mr. Percivall found it to contain myriads of animalcule, or vermiculi. 'To chemical analysis, according to Girard, the horse’s semen yields four fifths of a peculiar animal matter ; the remaining ingredients being mucus, muriate of potass and soda, and carbonate and phosphate of lime. Castration operates in horses, not only by depriving stallions of their amorous fury, but converting the most outrageous into meek and even spiritless geldings. But the loss of one testicle does not take away either the procreative faculty, or the sexual appetite ; for rigs, as they are then called, appear to get foals as well as stallions.
In the covering season animals are found to grow restless and unruly, and unless permitted to seek their mates they
ANATOMY. A9
will often refuse their food, and even undergo considerable privations, so influential in the system is the periodical sexual passion.
By implanting such a vigorous and irresistible impulse into the sexual constitution of animals, has nature excited the congress of the sexes, and insured the perpetuation of their _ species; and so salutary is the moderate or seasonable per- formance of this act, that animals are found to be improved, both in health and strength, by it; if carried to excess, it proves highly destructive.
In the covering season the female parts are in a fit state of aptitude for giving due effect to the semen conveyed into them by the penis of the male; they show this aptitude by redness, and prominency of the vulva, and by the emission, at intervals, of a whitish mucus fluid ; animals that are ill fed and hard worked, seldom show that they are horseing at all.
Impregnation ordinarily puts an end to the estral dis- charge, by causing permanent closure of the mouth of the womb. The germs, or rudiments, of the future beings exist in the ovaria of the female prior to impregnation, and only require the stimulus of the masculine liquor to dislodge them and develop themselves.
STOMACH.
By reference to the plate, it will be seen that the horse’s stomach somewhat resembles a bagpipe. It is situated behind the diaphragm, principally on the left side, with its expellant orifice extending across the spine to the right. It has two surfaces, which may be called its sides, though one is posterior, and the other anterior; and two ex- tremities, a large and small. The superior, or upper portion of the latter receives the cesophagus or gullet, and is termed its cardiac orifice; while the lower portion, which ends in the duodenum, (see plate,) is termed its pyloric orifice. The situation of the stomach varies, in some degree, with its distention ; when it is much distended, the left extremity will press upon the diaphragm, and cause heaving at the
(ow BOI)
Plate No. 4.
THE STOMACH OF THE HORSE.
—_
=
a, the gullet, or esophagus, extending to the stomach: 6, 6, the margin which separates the cuticular from the villous coats of the stomach; c, the entrance of the gullet into the stomach; d, d, the cuticular portion of the stomach; e, the communication between the stomach and first intestine; f, 7, f, the villous or mu- cous portion of the stomach, in which the food is principally digested; g, the small orifice through which a portion of the pancreatic juice enters the intestine; A, the orifice through which the bile passes into the intestine: the two pins mark the two tubes.
ANATOMY. §1
flanks. In oxen and sheep, the first stomach, being very large, is found, when distended, to have its extremity carried up between the last rib and the hip, in which part it is punc- tured when a bullock is blown or hoven. But such an idea of the horse’s stomach would be very erroneous ; for, this animal having a very small one, it can never occupy a simi- lar situation. 'The stomach has, externally, a covering from the peritoneum, which adheres closely to it by means of ‘its cellular membrane. Its middle portion consists of muscular fibres, which are stronger in the horse than in oxen and sheep. 'These fibres run in various directions, but are princi- pally longitudinal and circular; the latter very strong and thick at the point where the gullet terminates. The inner surface of the stomach consists of two portions, a cuticular and a villous. ‘This kind of cuticula, covering nearly one half of the stomach, is peculiar to animals that appear destined to live on grain. It may be considered, in a slight degree, a species of gizzard, resembling the structure. of those animals who have organs to make up for the want of teeth ; for the horse has not the means of remastication, which oxen and sheep possess ; nor does he usually masticate his food sufficiently ; the wants of the constitution stimulate him to swallow it hastily ; he, therefore, devours his food greedily, and if there were not some other structure than the one common to stomachs in general, it would not be suf- ficiently digested. 'The insensibility of this cuticular coat allows it to press, in some degree, on the food and perform a slight ituration without pain. The cuticular coat ends ab- ruptly by a fringed end, and is very distinct from the villous coat. The villous coat, being much larger in extent than the muscular, is thrown into folds, which are largest towards the greatextremity. ‘Towards the first intestine they become less, and when at the lower orifice they form a valve, preventing the return of food, and its too speedy passage out. The folds not only hinder the too hasty passage of the food, but, by this means, apply the gastric juice more certainly to all its parts; but the principle end is to increase the secreting
52 ANATOMY.
surfaces, which are here essentially necessary, as only half of the horse’s stomach is supposed to possess the power of secreting gastric juice. We here, likewise, see the utility of the saliva; for, were the food to come into the stomach nearly dry, the gastric juice, being but a mucus, would not pervade all its parts, but would be lost upon some; nor would the mass be soft enough to spread in between its folds.
DESCRIPTION OF THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT, AND ITS DIS- EASES.
T’o a person totally unacquainted with the structure of the horse’s foot, it may appear as a mass of horny, insensible matter ; especially when he sees a horse-shoer cutting off large slices of it with the knife, and nailing to it plates of iron. It will be found, however, to be a very complicated piece of mechanism, but admirably calculated for sustaining the immense pressure and concussion to which it is almost constantly exposed. The horse’s foot may be considered under two heads — the sensitive and the horny parts. The former consists of bones, ligaments, cartilages, membranes, nerves, bloodvessels, &c., and is therefore susceptible of pain. The horny part, on the contrary, is void of sensibility, and serves principally as a defence to the sensitive parts, which it covers; it is endowed, however, with considerable elas- ticity, which enables it to yield, in some degree, to the im- pulse of the internal or sensitive part, in the various motions of the animal ; therefore, if, there be any disposition or ten- dency to contract or shrink in the horny covering or hoof, the internal, sensitive foot will be more or less compressed ; and, if the horny parts lose their elasticity, the sensitive foot must suffer from concussion. So wisely, however, is every part of the foot contrived, that when it is properly managed, and judiciously pared and shoed by the smith, and when the horse is employed only by a humane man, it may be generally preserved in a sound state, perhaps nearly as long as other parts of the body. It must be admitted, that old horses, like old men, have not that ease and freedom about them which
( 53)
Plate No. 5.
THE LEG FROM THE SHANK BONE.
ah My “aN Kc GZ ao
SS . ~ Se SRG NS N
: ~ 4s x
a, the shank bone; 8, the superior, or large pastern bone; c, the inferior, or lesser pastern ; d, the coffin, or foot bone; e, the navicular, or nut bone; 7, the sessamoid bone; g, the inner, or elastic frog; h, the suspensary ligament, inserted into the sessamoid bones; 7, the large flexor tendon of the leg; j, a ligament uniting the sessamoid to the pastern bones; 4, the short, inferior sessamoid ligament; /, the insertion of the flexor tendon into the small pastern ; m, the horny frog ; », the in- sertion of the flexor tendon into the coffin bone; 0, a ligament uniting the navicu- lar to the coffin bone; p, the crust, or wall, of the foot; g, the sensitive lamina, uniting the crust to the coffin bone; 7, the extensor tendon; s, ¢, the union of the upper head of the long pastern bone, and the inferior head of the shank or leg bone, forming the fetlock joint.
54 ANATOMY.
they possessed in their youth ; and that their feet, like other parts of the body, are subject to disease from various causes. Even in a state of unrestrained freedom, horses are found with diseased feet, that have never been shod.
The different parts that form the foot will now be noticed. By referring to the plate, figure d, a section of the coffin bone, will be seen, where, while it somewhat resembles the foot in shape, it contains the two principle arteries which supply the foot. They enter the lower and back part of the bone, immediately under and behind the termination of the flexor tendon. The arteries give off several branches within the coffin bone, which pass out through orifices at its lower and front part, to be distributed over its surface. The coffin bone is connected with the coronary, or small pastern, and with the navicular, (figure e,) or nut bone. At the posterior, or back part, the flexor tendon (figure m) is inserted into the coffin bone.
The nut, or navicular bone, (figure e,) is in shape not un- like a boat. It is interposed between the flexor tendon and other bones, to remove the insertion of the tendon farther from the centre of motion; having a polished surface con- stantly moistened by a fluid resembling synovia, or joint oil.
The coronary, or small pastern bone, rests both on the coffin bone and navicula, to which it is firmly united by ligaments.
The great pastern,®or os suffraginis, rests on the small pastern, and is also firmly united by ligaments. The two sessamoid bones are placed at the upper and posterior part of the large pastern, to which they have a strong ligamentous attachment.
The canon, or shank bone, (figure a,) rests both on the great pastern and sessamoid bones. It articulates and moves easily upon them.
There are two elastic bodies attached to the upper and lateral edge of the coffin bone. They are named lateral car- tilages ; they occupy all the space between the extensor ten- don and the back part of the sensitive frog. The lower part of these cartilages is covered by the hoof. The elastic
ANATOMY. 55
membranes, or lamine, cover all the front and lateral surface of the coffin bone ; at the extremity of which they turn off at an acute angle, stretching forward to the side of the sen- sitive frog: here they form what have been termed the sensi- tive bars. ‘The lamine are elastic, and are said to be about five hundred innumber. ‘These lamine are received between corresponding laminz in the hoof; but there is a material difference between them. ‘The lamine of the hoof are void of sensibility ; those of the coffin bone are very sensitive. These two kinds of lamine form the connecting medium between the hoof and coffin bone; and so strong is their union, that it is found impossible to separate them without tearing or stripping off the sensitive lamine from the coffin bone, unless the foot be placed in water for some time before it is attempted. 'The extensor tendon (figure 7,) is fixed, or inserted, into the upper and front part of the coffin bone.
The sensitive frog resembles a wedge; its point is to- wards the toe, whence it becomes gradually wider and larger : it is divided by a cleft in its centre, towards the hind part. The frog is made up of cartilaginous and fatty matter, and possesses considerable elasticity. Its fore part rests on that part of the flexor tendon which passes over the navicular bone, and on that which is inserted into the coffin bone. From this part its cleft or division commences ; only a small portion, therefore, of the sensitive frog rests on the coffin bone and flexor tendon. The wide part of the frog projects considerably behind these, forming the bulbs of the heels, and, taking a turn forward, is blended with a ligament called the coronary. At its widest or posterior part, there is a con- siderable distance between the sensitive frog and the flexor tendon, the intermediate space being filled up with an elastic, fatty kind of matter. By this contrivance the frog is capable of considerable motion when it receives the pressure of the horse’s weight, which it must do when its horny covering is in contact with the ground. The sensible bars are formed _ by an inflection of the sensible lamin, when they arrive at the heel, whence they pass obliquely forward to the sides of the sensitive frog.
56 ANATOMY,
Foot lameness. — The fore feet are more subject to lame- ness than any other part; and the most common cause of such lameness is a morbid irritability of the elastic lamine, which cover the front and sides of the coffin bone and bars. The causes of this morbid state are numerous— applying a hot shoe to the foot, mechanical expansion or contraction with shoes fitted for that purpose. It may be brought on by hard riding, standing upon hot litter, and high feeding. The practice of breaking colts, and putting them to work too early, lays the foundation of foot lameness. Horses afflicted with this disease have a great degree of heat in the feet, with an unusual dryness and contraction of the horn at the heels; the frog appears to be compressed, and narrower than in the healthy foot, and sometimes ragged and discharging matter from its cleft or division. This is not always the case; sometimes the frog appears quite sound, and of the natural shape, and the form of the foot does not appear to have un- dergone any alteration. 'The lameness is often inconsidera- ble, and continues so for months. If the horse is worked on a soft road, very little, if any, lameness is perceptible ; but the moment the animal steps on hard ground, it will be noticed. At length the horse is seen constantly resting his foot, or putting it forward, as he stands in the stable, and, when taken out to work, is found very lame. (The only chance to effect a radical cure in this disease, is to turn the horse to grass in soft ground, without shoes ; and, unless this is done early, it seldom effects any permanent good.
Corns. — A disease of the horse’s foot, often causing lame- ness. Corns generally happen in the inner heel, or in that part of the sole which lies within the angle formed by the inflection of the crust or wall of the hoof, or, in other words, between the bar and crust. In their early stage they gen- erally cause some degree of lameness. If not attended to at this period, the horse soon becomes lame ; and when the shoe is removed for examination, the horny matter in the part described will be found, upon scraping off the exterior sur- face, of a dark red color. If the shoe is not removed at this
SHOEING. 57
stage of the disease, continued pressure on the tender part, or corn, will at length cause matter to form, which, finding no vent beneath, ascends to the upper part of the hoof, called the coronet, where it breaks out ; and this often misleads the practitioner, and the real cause is not suspected. The only proper way to proceed, is to pare out the red part, then take a small piece of tow, saturate it with tincture of myrrh, and _ place it on the corn ; then have the animal shod with a bar shoe, and this can only be applied when the frog is sufficient- ly prominent and firm to receive its pressure. For, should the frog be lower than the heels, (that is, supposing the foot to be taken up, and its bottom part held upwards,) it must be obvious that the bar shoe cannot bear upon it, and will, there- fore, be useless. The only thing to be done in this case, is to pare away the crust of the tender heel, so that the heel of acommon shoe may not rest upon it. The only mode by which a corn can be either cured or palliated, is to take off all pressure from the parts; and this, not only for a short time, but till the injured sensitive parts have lost their tender- ness, and formed horn of sufficient strength to enable them to bear pressure. While a horse is worked, the shoe should be frequently examined ; and whenever the heel appears to be so near the diseased part as to be in danger of bearing upon it, there must be a vacancy between the heel of the hoof and that of the shoe. When a horse becomes very lame from a corn, and matter is seen oozing out about the coronet, it will be advisable to leave off the shoe, and apply a poultice of shorts, or marshmallows.
SHOEING.
Many of the evil consequences of shoeing arise from the operator having but a very imperfect knowledge of the struc- ture and various functions of the foot. (See Anatomy of the Foot.) In shoeing a strong, well-formed foot, there is very
emt
58. SHOEING.
little difficulty, provided the smith understands his business ; but in feet that are deformed, considerable skill is required, and a knowledge of the anatomy of the foot is indispensable.
The greatest evils in shoeing arise from the introduction of nails; and, notwithstanding many men of note in the veterinary art have strenuously labored to obviate the mis- chief, or to discover some new and better mode of fixing the shoe, their efforts have not hitherto been crowned with suc- cess.
Great ignorance was displayed in the earlier methods of shoeing ; the bars were totally cut away, and the frog con- siderably pared down; the shoe was badly shaped, and was put on the foot red hot: the result was, what might be ex- pected, — the functions of the bars and frog were destroyed, and the ill-shaped shoe acting with these, contraction in its worst form appeared, while the application of the hot shoe dried up the moisture of the crust.
The first who made any reformation in inne method was Lafosse ; he introduced the half-moon shoe. 'This was con- sidered an improvement ; its semicircular shape seemed to be more adapted to the healthy hoof, and not reaching beyond the middle of the foot, the nails were placed near the toe ; hitherto their situation had been nearer the heels, which pre- vented a proper action of the sole and frog, thus destroying the natural spring and elasticity of the foot. Bracken and Bartlett made Lafosse’s treatise known in England; but his method had this disadvantage, that the horses were apt to slip, and the heels were worn down very fast. To Lafosse succeeded William Osmer, who first prohibited the extensive paring of the hoof, that had as yet been practised. The crust was made smooth by rasping ; the frog and bars were only to be cut when the edges were ragged; the shoe was equally thick in every part; the surface next the ground was flat, but narrower behind than before.
Many now appeared, who introduced various methods of shoeing and forms of shoes, all of which displayed more or less ingenuity. Lord Pembroke and Mr. Bracy Clark deserve
SHOEING. 59
mention. The Veterinary College threw out many hints and improvements, and Mr. Coleman labored hard to extend the knowledge already obtained.
Mr. Clark’s shoe did not materially differ from that recom- mended by Osmer ; he raised many objections against elevat- ing the heels with calkins— preferred, however, sharp calkings in hilly roads.
Mr. Lawrence speaks in favor of the French method of driving the nails into shoes, which is in an oblique direction, so that the points come out about three quarters of an inch above the shoe.
The preparation of the foot, and the operation of shoeing, should be performed as follows : —
In taking off the old shoe, it is always necessary to raise the clenched portion of the nails, for, if neglected, the nail holes become enlarged, and not unfrequently pieces of the crust are torn off; this must naturally weaken the hold of the new nails, and injure the foot in other ways.
The edges of the crust must then be rasped, to ascertain if any stubbs remain behind ; this process will likewise re- move the dirt and gravel.
Paring is the next process, and perhaps the most difficult. The quantity to be cut away will vary with different horses. The flat foot needs very little paring. In the concave, or hollow foot, the horn may be cut till the sole yields to mode- rate pressure ; when the sole appears in flakes, and thick in substance, it will be better to make the sole sufficiently hol- low to admit the application of a flat shoe, as it will rest only, in that case, on the crust. But when the sole will not allow of being thus pared, the shoe must then be made concave, or hollow, on the surface next the foot.
The crust must be level all round, and the heels of the shoe should rest on the junction of the bars with the crust.
The bars should be left prominent, and never, under any circumstances, should they be cut away. If there is any one part of shoeing more important than the rest, it is to suffer the bars to remain prominent ; if they are cut away, which
60 SHOEING.
is frequently done, contraction or permanent lameness is the result. The horn between the bars and crust must be re- moved; when this is done, and the shoe rests on the junction of the bars and crust, the horse will generally be free from corns.
The frog must be carefully pared away according to the shape and prominence of the foot, but it must be left within and above the lower surface of the shoe; if it descend lower than this, it will be injured; and if it be allowed to remain higher, it will not touch the ground, and its intention is thus rendered abortive, and its functions cannot be discharged.
For a perfect hoof, the shoe should not be more than three quarters of an inch broad, and of the same thickness at the heel as at the toe.
The surface of the shoe that bears on the ground should be flat ; that next the foot, particularly at the toe, should be hollowed ; for even in good feet, the sole towards the toe is often level with the crust, and consequently would be pressed upon by the shoe, were its surface made flat. The toe of the shoe, being the part that wears most, should be formed of steel. ‘The nails should be placed as near the toe as is con- sistent with the security of the shoe, that there may be as little restraint as possible upon the motion of the heels, and quarters of the hoof.
The crust of flat feet is usually weak ; therefore, great care is required in nailing on the shoe; and this will appear the more necessary, when it is considered how much pain the animal must suffer, and what severe lameness may ensue, should he happen to lose a shoe during a journey. Horses that have long and slanting pasterns, with weak, low heels, require a shoe rather thicker at the heel than the toe; and when the pasterns are short and upright, and the crust of the heels deep and strong, a thin-heeled shoe is proper.
The most important object to be borne in mind, is the treat- ment of the foot at the time of shoeing. The blacksmith should never cut away more of the hoof than would be worn away, were the animal in a state of unrestrained freedom.
SHOEING. 61
The shoe should never be put on hot; neither should the foot be shaped to fit the shoe.
The bar shoe, which is called into use when the foot is affected with corns, sandcrack, &c., should never be worn longer than the disease requires.
Contraction of the Hoof. — 'This is a very common defect in horses, and though it sometimes takes place under the best management, and even in colts that have never been shod, it is more commonly the effect of improper treatment. If we cut off the foot of a dead horse, and keep it ina dry but cool situation, so that it may not soon become putrid, it will be found to undergo but very little alteration in its form, though kept a considerable time; but, if the contents of the hoof are taken out, which may be done by keeping the foot a few days in a hot situation, the hoof will then be found to shrink or contract. ‘This contraction will take place principally at the higher part or coronet, and towards the heels; the horn being in those parts most flexible, and containing nothing to oppose the contracting power. At the lower part, or bottom of the crust, there may be the same tendency to contraction ; but there the horn is much thicker, and the contractible power is strongly opposed by the bottom of the hoof: that is, the frog, bars, and sole. If the bottom of the foot is removed, the heels will then contract rapidly. What then, it may be asked, is it that prevents contraction of the hoof in the living horse; and by what circumstances is the tendency or disposition to contract produced? ‘The hoof, in its healthy state, is per- vaded by a fluid, by means of which it is preserved in a flexible and elastic state. If, by any means, a preternatural degree of heat is excited in the foot, this fluid will be too quickly absorbed, and the supply will be diminished ; the horny matter will, therefore, be disposed to contract or shrink ; and the contraction will take place more or less rapidly, according to the degree in which the disposition to contrac- tion exists, and the resistance that is opposed to it. Contrac- tion of the hoof sometimes depends on error in shoeing ; yet the cause is often found in a morbid state of the foot,
62 SHOEING.
brought on by immoderate work, or standing idle in the stable ; and sometimes depending, also, on constitutional or hereditary taint. When the nervous structure of any part of the body is impaired, it offers very little resistance to the encroachments of disease. ‘The best means of preventing contraction of the hoof, is to breed from stallions and mares that are free from it; to break colts, and bring them into work, at a proper age; and when brought into the stable, to feed them properly, and work them with consideration. If a young horse is brought into work before he comes to maturity, there will be an undue expenditure of vital power. A horse in a state of nature takes proper and sufficient exercise, and the friction to which the feet are exposed is sufficient to wear away the useless horn ; but when he 1s taken into the stable, his shoes nailed to the hoofs, and is made to stand for several days together without any exercise, is it strange that the feet should become diseased, or contracted? Sometimes a natural drain, or issue, is formed in one or both feet ; that is, a thrush takes place; but the thrush is an evil, though less than it has a tendency to remove. (See T'arusn, part Second.). The term contraction of the hoof is sometimes improperly applied ; for in all those cases of chronic lameness that have been sup- posed to depend upon contraction of the hoof, though the contraction has been removed, the lameness has continued. The general application of the term contraction has been often the cause of obscuring the real nature of the lameness which has been so named, and has led to many contrivances, in the way of shoeing, for expanding the hoof; such as forc- ing it apart by means of a screw.
If we look at the real nature of contractions, we shall find that they originate, generally, in an excessive use of the organ and bad stable management; therefore the only probable means of restoration is a long run at grass.
REMARKS. ON. FEEDING. 63)
REMARKS ON FEEDING.
As the food of horses is well known to act considerably in maintaining health in some cases, and in others to be a serious cause of disease, it is, therefore, an important subject to the farmer and stable-keeper, and demands their serious considera- - tion. Food may consist of two kinds, namely, natural, or such as animals are found to subsist on in a state of unre- strained freedom ; and artificial, or such as man, by his own experience and observation, has found most suitable to pro- duce health, strength, and condition, when domesticated and rendered subservient to his use. Herbage forms a great part of the food given to horses, such as grasses and clover ; the different. kind of grasses are usually converted into hay. Clover is given green, since it appears to be more useful in that form, for when dry it is not so easily digested, and con- tains less nutritive matter. The green herbage is invaluable in the cure of some obstinate cases of disease, simply by its medicinal effects. When hay is cut at the proper season, namely, before it becomes too fibrous, the greatest care, is requisite in the drying process, for the most judicious persons have frequently been unfortunate enough to have their hay turn musty; in such cases it is impaired in quality. To: obtain good hay, the grass. should consist of various sorts; or be, as it is commonly termed, full.of herbage. 'The soil should be well drained. 'The grass should be mowed early, and while in flower, and should be afterwards almost con- stantly attended to, if the weather is favorable; the more it is scattered about, the better will it be made, and the more effectually will its fragrance and other good qualities be pre- served. The quantity is sometimes looked to more than the quality. Horses that are fed long on bad or musty hay, sooner or later suffer from indigestion, and a consequent loss of condition.
It will be seen by the annexed table, that hay contains but a small amount of nutrition in proportion to the same weight
64 REMARKS ON FEEDING.
of grain; therefore hay, to support life, must be given in large quantities; much time is required to digest it, and a large quantity of saliva and gastric juice to macerate it before it can be digested: all these circumstances are directly opposed to the uses of the horse, to which luxury and the wants of man have applied him. Hay, therefore, should be used as a condiment, to increase the bulk of food to a healthy distention of the stomach ; and as such, very little of it should be used. The salt meadow hay has many objections ; the principal one is, that it is cut too late, after the stems have become tough and fibrous. The effects of insufficient food are too well known to need much description ; debility includes them all; it invades every function of the animal. And as life is the sum of the powers that resist disease, and if disease is only the instrument of death, it follows, of course, that whatever enfeebles life, or, in other words, produces debility, must pre- dispose to disease. When horses are put to regular daily work, their vital power will be best maintained by a mixed diet, composed of shorts, meal, cracked corn, oats, and hay, the latter cut and mixed with the other articles, which must be moistened ; bearing in mind, however, that horses, like ourselves, vary constitutionally, some being more readily and simply nourished than others. The principal food used in the New England States are oats, hay, and corn; the latter is ground or broken, and sometimes given whole. Oats have quite an extensive use; these, after being kept some time, give out moisture, which is supposed to render them more wholesome than new. When oats are damaged, they are unfit for the horse ; if, however, they are used, they ought to be exposed to the heat of the sun, for kiln-dried oats produce disease of the bowels and skin, and of the system generally. Much has been written on the advantage of bruising oats for horses, and it has been proved by comparative tests, that a great saving may be thus effected. Some horses will not masticate the oats; hence they are swallowed whole; an examination of the excrement will prove this to be the case.
The most general roots in use are, 1. Carrots, which are
REMARKS ON FEEDING. 65
one of the best remedial agents in our possession. When the horse is in health, they assist nature to maintain the physio- logical operations of all the functions. The sick horse will be improved by the use of this useful vegetable. It forms one of the best poultices, where poultices are indicated, with which we are acquainted ; when cut up m small pieces, or scalded, and given to the horse occasionally, they are very acceptable to the digestive organs: in cases of chronic indi- gestion, and diseases of the lungs, they are invaluable. 2. Parsnips produce the same effect, and are about equal in their amount of nutritive matter. 3. Potatoes have been given to the horse, but the benefit derived from them is greater when boiled. In addition to the different diets here named, many employ other things; but this chiefly depends on the locality, and the possibility of procuring such food as is gen- erally esteemed most wholesome.
A list, showing the relative amounts of nutritive matter contained in the following articles, taken from Sir H. Davy’s work on chemistry : —
“1000 parts of wheat contain 995 parts of nutritive mat- ter ; barley, 920; oats, 742; peas, 574; beans, 570; potatoes, 230; red beets, 148; parsnips, 99; carrots, 98.”
Of the grasses, 1000 parts of meadow catstail contain, at the time of seeding, 98 parts of nutritive matter; narrow leafed meadow grass in seed, and sweet scented soft grass in flower, 95; narrow leafed and flat stalked meadow grass in flower, fertile meadow grass in seed, and creeping soft grass in flower, 77; cabbage, 73; crested dogstail and brome flow- ering, 71; yellow oat in flower, 66; yellow turnip, 64; nar- row leafed meadow grass, creeping beet, 59; rough meadow grass, flowering, 56; common turnips, 42; sainfoin and broad crested clover, 52; lucerne, 23. Thus it appears that a horse must consume an immense quantity of the grasses, to enable the digestive organs to furnish the material for supplying the great waste that is continually going on; therefore, however good or cheap hay may be, it is dear provender in the end. A horse will live and thrive best on a mixed diet, already
9
66 OF STEAMING AND PREPARING FOOD FOR ANIMALS.
referred to; yet an occasional run at grass will improve the condition. If indigestible substances are given to the horse, the stomach becomes overworked; and it follows that when an organ is overtaxed, other parts of the system become sympathetically affected, and the chemico-vital machinery is clogged. This is in accordance with nature’s laws, which are immutable and uncompromising ; whenever they are vio- lated the penalty is sure to follow.. Men who prepare horses for the market attempt to get them into condition, without any regard to their general health, the climate, quantity of food, its quality, or the state of the digestive organs. Men are very apt to think, that as long as the animal has what they term good food, and just as much as they can cram into the stomach, they must fatten; when, in fact, such an enormous quantity of food oppresses the stomach, impairs the digestive organs, and converts the food into a cause of disease. As soon as the stomach is overworked, the food accumulates ; distends the viscera, interferes with the motion of the dia- phragm, presses on the liver, and interrupts the circulation of the blood through that organ, seriously interfering with the bile-secreting process. Many thousands of our most valuable horses die in consequence of being too well, or, rather, inju- diciously fed. Reader, if you own horses, let them have their meals at regular hours, in sufficient quantity, and no more ; good straw on which they may rest their weary limbs; good stables, well ventilated ; let them not be compelled to breathe the emanations that arise from the dung or urine ; keep them clean, avoid undue exposure ; don’t work them too soon after feeding: finally, govern them in a spirit of kind- ness, and there will be little foothold for disease.
OF STEAMING AND PREPARING FOOD FOR ANIMALS.
‘¢On one occasion a number of cows were selected from a large stock, for the express purpose of making the trial: they
OF STEAMING AND PREPARING FOOD FOR ANIMALS. 67
were such as appeared to be of the best kind, and those that gave the richest milk. In order to ascertain what particular food would produce the best milk, different species of grass and clover were tried separately, and the quality and flavor of the butter was found to vary very much. But what was of the most importance, many of the grasses were found to be coated with silecia, or decomposed sand, and too hard and insoluble in the stomachs of the cattle. In consequence of this the grass was cut and well steamed, and it was found to be readily digested; and the butter that was made from the milk, much firmer, better flavored, and would keep longer without salt than any other kind. Another circumstance that attended the experiment was, that in all the various grasses and grain, that were intended by our Creator as food for man and beast, the various oils that enter into their composi- tion were so powerfully assimilated or combined with the other properties of the farinaceous plants, that the oil partook of the character of essential oil, and was not so easily evapo- rated as that of poisonous vegetables; and experience has proved, that the same quantity of grass steamed and given to the cattle will give more butter than when the hay is given in its dry state. This fact being established from numerous experiments, then there must be a great saving and superiori- ty in this mode of feeding. The meat of such cattle is more wholesome, tender, and better flavored than when fed in the ordinary way.’”’ Dr. Whitlaw thus describes the process of steaming: ‘A boiler, that will hold from fifty to a hundred gallons, should be placed in a convenient situation, upon an iron surface, so as to render if movable at pleasure, although it would be better as a permanent fixture. The boiler should have a safety-valve affixed in the middle of the lid, which should be six inches in diameter, and a screw and unscrew to the boiler, when it is necessary to replenish the boiler. The valve should be three or four inches long, one inch or more in diameter, as the size of the boiler may require, with a small bar across the bottom tube; and a small hole in the centre of the bar, to allow the stalk of the valve to pass
68 OF STEAMING AND PREPARING FOOD FOR ANIMALS,
through it, which must be in the form of a pencil, a few inches longer than the barrel, to allow the steam to escape ; with a guard at the bottom, with a notch in it, the size of the guard, to prevent the valve flying out. There should be a concave head to the valve, to fit the tube close, and of suffi- cient weight to prevent its bubbling up, unless the steam be strong. Next procure a pipe resembling the neck of a goose when standing erect; the wide end to be connected with the cover of the boiler, with a screw to connect the pipe through which the steam passes into the box. The box should be made of three-inch plank, from four to six feet square, or as large as may be required; strongly dovetailed at the corners, fixed with screws, with a false bottom, and about eight inches from the true bottom: the latter should be perforated with holes, drilled about the size of a lead pencil, in order that the steam may ascend. The pipe from the boiler should enter immediately below the false bottom, through a hole made for the purpose, and of the same bore as the pipe. When thus prepared, the box should be filled with chopped hay, or whatever dry food is used, such as cornstalks, &c. The steam should be turned on, and kept exerting its power for a short time, according to the nature of the food. When cool, a pailful of it may be mixed with a few handfuls of cracked oats, or ground corn, and should be given to each cow night and morning: half a tablespoonful of salt should be given twice a week. ‘The cows should have, in addition, a sufficient quantity of dry hay to give them employment in chewing the cud. They must be kept perfectly clean, and be combed with a wool card every morning ; for this practice will create that circulation through the skin, which is neces- sary to the health of the cow and the milk she gives, as a free circulation is to the lungs. Another great advantage obtained by steaming’ is, that it volatilizes, or throws off, the oils of many pernicious plants that may be among the hay, particularly the buttercup, and keeps the cattle from suffer- ing from the bad effects of the poison. When potatoes are steamed, (and they never should be given without,) a con-
WATERING. 69
siderable degree more of their dangerous powers dissipates, than would by boiling them, and consequently they are much improved for food. Having paid great attention to the cul- tivation of the potato,” observes Dr. Whitlaw, “I may be allowed to suggest something that will be useful to the farm- er. Potatoes ought to be raised on new earth — gravelly, chalky, marly, slaty, and mountainous earths. In such situations they are more mealy and wholesome; but when grown in rich manure and clayey soils, they are apt to pro- duce disease. During the process of boiling potatoes, the poisonous or night-shade principle is so blended with the starch and gluten, that it never can be separated, so as to produce gluten and flour afterwards. If potatoes were to be raised on low grounds, and eaten in the torrid zone, in the same way they are in England, they would prove a mortal poison. Carrots, beets, and parsnips, should be raised on dry ground ; particularly carrots and parsnips, as a wet soil ren- ders them injurious, as well as all umbelliferous plants ; and as they are frequently made food for cattle, they should be well steamed.”
WATERING.
AurHoucH few pay proper attention to this department of stable management, yet a little reflection will prove of how much importance it is, that the horse should be supphed with such water as is most palatable to him. Horses have a great aversion to what is termed hard water, and have been known to turn away from the filthy stuff found in the troughs of some of our stables: the water of wells and pumps in our seaport towns is usually hard, and possesses a degree of cold- ness not at all congenial with the palate of the animal. The intense coldness of well water, in the summer months, has been known to gripe, and produce spasmodic colic, injur- ing the animal in other ways.
70 EXERCISE.
When a horse is in health he may be frequently watered, taking care to allow but a small portion at a time. When water is drunk immoderately, it reduces the system to a con- dition which renders him an easy prey to the attacks of severe disease, by despoiling the structures of their elasticity and vigor. A horse that is about to perform a journey should be restrained from taking too much fluid. It is a bad arrange- ment to water a horse just before feeding, yet this is to a great extent a general practice.
If the animal has just arrived from a journey, or has worked hard, about two quarts may be given; yet if he is in a state of perspiration, he should be rubbed dry before partaking of any fluid. Water should always be given toa horse from a bucket, (we mean working horses,) and they never should have more than half a bucket at a time; two or three buckets a day would be sufficient for any horse.
Walking exercise is useful after watering, but trotting or galloping is dangerous. Should a horse get loose during the night, and overload the stomach with corn, then a drink of water would be equivalent to a sentence of death. 'The only proper course would be, to keep the animal quiet, arouse the stomach and digestive organs to action by a cordial and car- minative drink ; use injections ; after the danger is over, and not till then, should the horse be permitted to drink.
EXERCISE.
Tuts is an essential part of stable management, and like food, it tends towards the health and strength of the animal. Daily exercise is necessary to all horses, unless they are sick ; it assists and promotes a free circulation of the blood, deter- mines morbific matter to the surface, develops the muscular structure, creates an appetite, improves the wind, and finally invigorates the whole system. We cannot expect much of a horse that has not been habituated to a sufficient daily
WANT OF APPETITE. 71
exercise ; while such as have been daily exercised, and well managed, are capable not only of great exertion and fatigue, but are ready and willing to do our bidding at any season. When an animal is overworked, it renders the system very susceptible to whatever morbid influences may be present, and imparts to the disease they may labor under an unusual degree of severity. The exhaustion produced by want of rest is equally dangerous ; such horses are always among the first victims, and when attacked their treatment is embarrass- ing and unsatisfactory.
WANT OF APPETITE.
THis sometimes arises from over-exertion, or immoderate work, which produces general debility, and of course the whole functions are more or less disturbed, and take on the same morbid action: at other times it is brought on by suffering the horse to overload the stomach and bowels; by standing in the stable without exercise, and eating immoderately of hay. Want of appetite may depend on a natural delicacy of the stomach, or on the bad quality of the food.
Bad hay is often eaten with little or no appetite, especially when it has been musty. When the appetite fails, though the food is good, and the horse has only moderate work, the diet should be changed; a small quantity of straw, cut up with what is called cut feed, would be serviceable ; but if the horse has been worked hard, rest probably is the only remedy neces- sary. Young horses sometimes refuse the hay, or mangle it, from soreness of the mouth, in consequence of changing their teeth. This is sometimes attributed to lampas, and the knife or firing iron is resorted to: this is a barbarous and cruel prac- tice, and should never be permitted. When a young horse is changing his teeth, the whole mouth becomes red and tender, which makes him fearful of eating hay or unground corn,
12 WANT OF APPETITE.
from the pain it gives him. In all such cases the horse should be kept on scalded shorts, or cut feed, until the sore- ness of the mouth is removed. In old horses, when the lampas are down to a level with the front nippers, the part should be washed with a strong solution of burnt alum; or make a decoction of powdered bloodroot, and wash the part night and morning. All serious internal disorders are attended with loss of appetite. Weakness of appetite is often consti- tutional, and cannot be cured ; yet it may be palliated: when such a horse is wanted only for moderate work, his appetite may be greatly improved by careful feeding, good grooming, and a well-ventilated stable. The food must be of the best quality, and the water pure, and not too cold or hard; he should have but little food at a time, but the more frequently. He should never have more, but rather less, food put before him at a time than he is inclined to eat ; and if, at any time, he is found to leave food in the manger, it should be taken out, and after keeping him without food for a short time, some fresh hay, oats, or shorts may be given. ‘The rack, manger, and every part of the stall should be kept clean, and when taken out for exercise or work, the stall should be well swept out, the old litter spread out to dry, and that part unfit for use taken away. At night some clean, fresh straw should be placed under him. A change of food is often useful, especially when green food or carrots can be obtained. It is the custom in many stables to collect the bedding after it has been saturated with the fluids of the excrement and urine, and place it under the manger, thus submitting the horse to the noxious vapors that arise from the filthy mass. Is it to be wondered at, that the poor animals should drag out such a miserable existence? __
Though a good appetite is very desirable in the horse, especially in one that works hard, yet the unlimited indul- gence, as we have already shown, leads to serious conse- quences. Some horses will do well on less food than others; but this does not form any objection to the establishment of a fixed allowance, taking into consideration the age, size, and
WANT OF APPETITE. 73
capacity of the digestive organs. The author has visited stables containing from ten to one hundred horses: out of that number no two could be found that would correspond exactly in external conformation, or muscular capacity ; they weighed from seven toeleven hundred pounds. Upon a little reflection, it will be seen that some of these horses would require less food than others; yet they all had their twelve ‘quarts, and as much hay as they could cram down. The evil consequences of overfeeding are sometimes gradual in their progress, and often so slow as to escape observation; so that when it amounts to a serious disorder, the cause is often lost sight of. Every man must be aware how important it is to know the cause of the malady before an attempt to cure is made. \ Very few men notice the quantity of hay a horse eats, and there are but few who attend to its quality ; yet every one will admit, that it is necessary to limit the allowance of hay, whether we regard the expense of the article or the horse’s health. If a horse stands idle in the stable for a whole day, with as much hay before him as he will eat, he generally eats too much, especially if he has but little corn and too much water. The increased capacity of the stomach, which gen- erally results from overloading that organ, is frequently accom- panied with increased appetite. So craving, or morbid, is the appetite, that the animal will eat his bedding, or any thing that comes in the way, until the stomach is sufficiently filled to allay the sensations of hunger. When a horse eats an immoderate quantity of hay, he is always craving after water ; so great is the thirst, that the horse generally loses that delicacy of taste and smell that is natural to him, and will drink any water that comes in his way. The best way of correcting this morbid appetite is, to turn the animal out to pasture, (if the season permits,) where there is but little grass, so that he may be obliged to work for a living. Here, if it is not too late, the stomach will gradually contract ; and as it diminishes in capacity, it will increase in strength. In the same ratio will the digestive organs be improved, and the 10
74 ON STABLE MANAGEMENT.
delicacy of taste be restored. By proper attention to the appetite, not only will a horse be kept in good health, but a great saving will be effected ; for it must be borne in mind, that when a horse eats more than he can digest, he does him- self harm, and occasions a great waste of food.
ON STABLE MANAGEMENT.
As the construction and management of the stable are materially connected with the prevention of disease, it is necessary that every farmer should pay particular attention to this important branch, since to negligence in this depart- ment may be traced many of those diseases which derange the natural functions of the body. When a horse is roam- ing at liberty in the forest or field, he enjoys all the advan- tages of fresh and pure air, and no restriction of light. The reader’s attention will be first called to construction and ven- tilation of the stable.
Situation is very important; yet in crowded cities the stable- keepers have but little choice. An elevated spot should be selected, if possible ; low, damp, or marshy ground is very prejudicial to the comfort and health of the horse; all low situations are apt to exhale gases that are more or less destructive. A moist, chilly air will engender rheumatism, stiffness of the joints, colds, or common catarrh.
Loftiness is very essential ; it prevents injury of the poll, called poll evil, and provides for a larger supply of pure air for the support of respiration.
In all cases it is necessary to have the ceiling tight; it keeps the bad atmosphere of a close stable from injuring the hay : by neglecting this precaution the food is rendered highly injurious and unwholesome.
The size of the stable must vary according to the number of horses it is intended to contain. The stalls should be six feet wide, so as to allow the horse to lie down, and nine feet
ON STABLE MANAGEMENT. 75
in length, with a declivity of one or two inches, so as to allow the urine to run off. Too many should not be kept in the same apartment : not only is the air thereby vitiated, but the rest and sleep, so necessary to invigorate the animal, are thus prevented or disturbed. Some horses will not lie down; in fact, there is not room for them to do so in many stables. Some men actually believe that a horse is as insensible as a stone, and that any thing is good enough for him ; that he is not entitled to any consideration or mercy ; and he stands in a narrow-contracted, filthy stall, until the muscles and liga- ments around the joints become so stiff and callous, that the poor brute is unable to rest his weary limbs. Some horses will not sleep, or lie down, unless perfectly at their ease ; hence the frequent entrance of stablemen and other persons, with lights, must be a great disturbance to horses that are fatigued and irritable.
A large manger will be preferable to the rack ; it will pre- vent the hay seeds and dust from falling on the head, to the frequent injury of the eyes. The length of the halter should be sufficient to allow the animal to lie down.
The floors of stalls are made of various materials: hard pine planks are the best, as they preserve an equal tempera- ture. A small quantity of dry straw is absolutely necessary, as it prevents many diseases of the feet; but the feet need not sink so deep in it that their temperature should be affected.
On Ventilation and the Admission of Light into the Stable. —In aclose stable the air is not only hot, but loaded with impurities ; the breath of the animal corrupts it, and renders it unwholesome. The author has often visited stables early in the morning, and found the atmosphere very oppressive, and the smell intolerable. From this hotbed of corruption the animals were brought forth to their daily work: the natu- ral consequence of such sudden transitions must sooner or later be disease. The effluvia of animal bodies are constantly running into a putrefactive state, and this must point out very forcibly the necessity of a proper ventilation in stables, espe- cially when it is considered that the dung and urine add to
76 ON STABLE MANAGEMENT.
the evil. Stables that are kept hot, and not sufficiently ven- tilated, are always damp. ‘This arises from the breath and vapor of the horse’s body becoming condensed. When the moisture has remained for a certain length of time, it acquires an unpleasant smell, which must be peculiarly offensive to an animal destined, in a state of nature, to be surrounded with pure and wholesome air. Ina state of health, a certain evaporation from the surface of the body is constantly going on: this iscalled insensible perspiration; it unloads the vessels of the skin, invigorates the circulation of the blood, and gives tone and health to the whole animal ; hence the neces- sity of attending to the proper means of ventilation in the construction of stables must be sufficiently evident.
The best mode of ventilation is to have a tube, which may be constructed of four boards nailed together, so as to form a hollow box: this is carried from the centre of the ceiling through the roof; a small ventilator may then be placed on it above the roof; or a more simple and less expensive method is, to furnish the tops with slanting caps, leaving sufficient space for the hot air to pass off: this will prevent the rain passing into the stable.
On the Admission of Light. — Nothing is so detrimental to the eyes as sudden transitions from darkness to a glaring light ; and yet this is heedlessly disregarded. Many of our city stables burn lamps during the day, (probably preferring darkness to light.) It is well known, and most persons have experienced the very unpleasant sensation of a mingled pain and giddi- ness, which is not readily dismissed, after emerging from a dark room or passage, and suddenly coming in contact with the light. Daily repetitions of this would gradually injure the eyesight, and probably blindness would be the result. On the other hand, too much light is equally injurious. The windows should be sashed so as to draw down from the top; and when the horse is at work, both these and the doors should be open.
The brush and currycomb are highly necessary for horses kept in stables. Good rubbing promotes circulation of the
ON THE ILL EFFECTS OF MANURES. 77
blood, determines morbific matter to the surface, relieves con- gestions, and is a substitute for exercise. Without a clean skin no horse can be expected to have a fine coat.
In fair weather the horse should be cleaned in the open air, and not in the stable ; a brush, or a wisp of straw, is the most beneficial and effective. The currycomb, when im- moderately used, is decidedly injurious.
Neatness is always requisite in stables, and in that case the appearance is more healthy and comfortable. Every article should be hung or laid in its proper place.
We cannot close this subject without referring to the evil practice of allowing the manure to accumulate under the stable floor : how long this practice will be continued remains to be seen. The subject of ventilation is but just in its infancy ; many have yet to learn, that the very existence of their animals depends on a proper supply of pure, uncontami- nated atmospheric air: when they are convinced of this fact, and not till then, do we expect a reformation. The litter and dung should be removed into the open air; nothing is lost by taking away that which is bad or unwholesome.
ON THE ILL EFFECTS OF MANURES
OF LARGE CITIES ON THE QUALITIES OF PLANTS.
Dr. Wuirttaw observes, ‘ Among the fertilizers of the soil, high importance is attached, and deservedly, to that mass of matter which results from the process of putrefaction upon organic substances undergoing corruption after death. By reason of its efficacy, it is assiduously procured to fertilize poor soils, to renovate exhausted ones, and prevent good ones from wearing out. Animal manures have a peculiar rankness ; some of them stimulate, or, it may almost be said, cauterize with vehemence. Hence they require admixture of milder materials to mitigate their force. Yet after this offal and
78 ON THE ILL EFFECTS OF MANURES.
scrapings of large cities have been mingled with soil, in such proportion as not to destroy the life of the plants, but to pro- mote their vegetation, they have been considered as commu- nicating, in many cases, a disgusting or offensive quality to some of the vegetables they nourish. ‘They have been charged with imparting a biting and acrimonious taste to radishes and turnips. Potatoes have been observed to borrow the foul taint of the ground.” This may readily account for the disease found in the potato. That the potato, in several sections of the United States, is fast degenerating, every one will admit ; and they will continue to do so just so long as the farmer uses animal manure, and suffers rank and poisonous weeds to vegetate on his lands.
Millers observe a strong, disagreeable odor in the meal of wheat that grew upon land highly charged with rotten recre- ments of cities; the like deterioration of quality has been remarked in tobacco raised in cow-pens. And stable dung has been accused of imparting a disagreeable flavor to aspara- gus. It seems that some portion of the foul matter of manure is absorbed by the radicles of vegetables, and, after passing unassimilated through the sap-vessels, is commu- nicated by the process of nutrition to living substances. This is not to be wondered at when we know that the prin- cipal constituents of animal and vegetable life are nearly the same; or the different compounds are all produced by the same elementary principles. Vegetables consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and the same substances, with the addition of nitrogen, are the principal constituents of the most important compounds found in the animal creation. ‘‘Tt may be illustrated in the animal kingdom. Ducks are rendered so ill tasted, from stuffing down garbage, as some- times to be offensive when brought as food to the table; the quality of pork is known to be modified by the food of the swine ; the bitterness of partridges has been ascribed to the buds on which they live; and the peculiar flavor of piscivorous fowl is rationally traced to the fish they devour. Thus a portion of nutrimental matter passes into the living
ON THE ILL EFFECTS OF MANURES. 79
bodies of plants and animals, in certain proportions, without having been entirely subdued or assimilated. It becomes, therefore, a subject of curious and important reflection. The horticulturist mostly calculates on the quantity of his crops. It is, however, a becoming subject of research, that he should likewise attend more to the quality; or, perhaps, the con- sumer may inform him that an offended palate, and injured health, will induce a careful provider to seek uncontaminated articles for his table.”
Dr. Whitlaw continues: ‘I have labored with the most unwearied zeal to point out to agriculturists the evil effects of the corrupted soil arising from improper manure, in pro- ducing diseased crops; and, consequently, diseasing animals and man fed on them likewise. I have urged my belief that even the most wholesome vegetables are changed by rank manures, so as to cause many diseases.”’
I hope the horticulturists and agriculturists in America will profit by the doctor’s advice and prevent, not only noxious, but likewise wholesome, vegetables from imbibing poisonous qualities, corrupted by bad manures, and more par- ticularly as the heat of that climate renders poisonous plants much more active than in England ; otherwise they will soon exceed the latter in respect to diseases, at least in dyspepsia, with its long train of awful attendants. ‘‘ Putrid animal matter is offensive to many animals. Dr. Rudge says that there was an enclosure, near Arlington, close to which was a dog ken- nel. Hight cows out of twenty miscarried, in consequence of frequent exposure to flesh, and the skinning of dead horses, so near them. The remainder were removed to a distant pasture, and did well. Most veterinary writers recommend that when a cow has aborted, the fetus and afterbirth should be buried deep and away from the pastures. Sad experience has taught them, that putrid animal matter is as destructive as the pestilential sword. ‘The smell of any putrid substance will cause sheep to miscarry.”
Let our landowners and farmers appropriate the best calcu- lated situations for raising grain, clover, and grass seed of the
80 ON ANIMAL MATTER.
most approved kind, in order to supply the cattle-growing interest. These should have their lands well cleaned by cropping, and well prepared for laying them down into pas- ture. All the manure that is to be put on the land should, the year previous, be made into compost with lime and other earth, well mixed by turning it over two or three times in summer; by this means all the insects, seeds, and roots in the manure will be destroyed by the lime. This plan will insure a good crop of grain and grass, adequate to the expense of the manure. ‘The ditches should be cleaned, and the dirt laid in heaps; both the common and rich earths made from the decayed leaves, should be prepared to mix with the manure and lime. In cases where the soil is light, lime, chalk, and marl are the best manure. In clay soils, sand and carbona- ceous earths are proper. ‘The land should be ploughed deep, so that the soil that has been subject to cultivation should be turned down to rest and recrystallize. Upon this principle, the people would be living upon provisions raised from virgin earth, which would indeed be a blessing to them; for then there would be few diseases, and the farmer would contribute to the wealth of the country. Paring and burning are good methods of getting the fields cleared of buttercups, poppies, dandelions, and other noxious plants, whose roots do not run deep into the soil. The flavor of all grains, fruits, and vege- tables are much improved by being manured with burnt earth _ and vegetable ashes.
ON ANIMAL MATTER.
Au bodies endowed with life, and with spontaneous mo- tion, are called animals. 'These are all capable of reproducing their like in life. Some, by the union of the two sexes, pro- duce small living creatures; others lay eggs, which require a due temperature to produce young ; some multiply without
ON ANIMAL MATTER. 81
conjunction of sexes ; and others are reproduced when cut in pieces, like the roots of plants.
All animals are fed on vegetables, either directly or by the intervention of other animals.
As the animal, then, is derived from the vegetable matter, we find, accordingly, that the former is capable of being re- solved into the same principle as those of the latter. Thus, by repeated distillations, we obtain from animal substances water, oil, air, and easily destructible salt and charcoal. These secondary principles are, by further processes, at length reso- luble into the same proximate principles which we find in vegetables, viz., air, earth, and water, and the principle of inflammability.
But though the principles of vegetable and animal substan- ces are fundamentally the same, yet these principles are com- bined ina different manner. It is exceeding rare that animal substances are capable of the vinous or acetous fermentation ; and the putrefactive, into which they run remarkably fast, is also different in some particulars from the putrefaction of vegetables. The smell is much more offensive in the putre- faction of animal than of vegetable substances. ‘The putre- faction of urine, is, indeed, accompanied with a peculiar fetor, by no means so intolerable as that of other animal matters ; this is probably owing to the pungency of the volatile alkali, and also to the urine containing less inflammatory mat- ter than the blood and other fluids. When analyzed by a destructive heat, animals afford products very different from those of vegetables ; the oil has a particular and much more fetid odor, and the volatile salt, instead of being an acid, found as it is in most vegetables, is found in animals to be a volatile alkali.
Chemists have spoken of an acid procurable from animal substances, and, indeed, certain parts of animal bodies are found to yield a salt of this kind; but it by no means is the case with animal substances in general. In some animals an acid exists uncombined and ready formed in their bodies. This is particularly manifest in some insects, especially ants,
11
82 ON ANIMAL MATTER,
from which an acid has been procured by boiling them in water.
The solid parts of animal bodies, as the muscles, tegu- ments, tendons, cartilages, and even the bones, when boiled in water, give a gelatinous matter, or glue, resembling the vegetable gums, but much more adhesive. We must, how- ever, except the hair. The acids, the alkalies, and quick- lime are found to be powerful solvents of animal matter. It is from the solids that the greatest quantity of volatile alkali is obtained ; it arises along with a very fetid empyreumatic oil, from which it is in some measure separated by repeated recti- fications. This salt is partly in a fluid, and partly in a solid state; and from its having been formerly prepared in the greatest quantity from the horns of the stag, it has been called salt or spirits of hartshorn. Volatile alkali may be procured from many animals, and from almost every part, except the fat. ‘Though we are sometimes able to procure the fixed alkali from animal fat burnt to a cinder, yet it is probable that this salt did not make any part of the living animal, but rather proceeded from the introduction of saline matter, incapable of being assimilated by the functions of the living creature.
In speaking of the fluid parts of animals, we should first examine the general fluid, from whence the rest are secreted. The blood, which, at first sight, appears to be a homogeneous fluid, is composed of several parts, easily separable from each other, and which the microscope can even perceive in its uncoagulated state. On allowing it to stand at rest, and be exposed to the air, it is separated into what are called the cras- samentum and the serum. 'The crassamentum consists chiefly of the red globules, joined together by another substance, called the coagulable lymph. The serum is a yellowish fluid, having little sensible taste or smell ; at the heat of 160° Fahrenheit’s thermometer, it is converted into a jelly. This coagulation of the serum is also owing to its containing a matter of the same nature with that of the crassamentum, viz., the coagulable lymph: whatever, then, coagulates
ON ANIMAL MATTER. 83
animal blood, produces that effect on this concrescible part. Several causes, and many different, are capable of effecting this coagulation ; such as contact of air, heat, alcohol, earth, alum, and some of the metallic salts. 'The more perfect neutral salts are found to prevent coagulation, such as*com- mon salt and nitre.
Of the fluids secreted from the blood, there a great variety in men and other animals.
The excrementitious and redundant fluids are those which afford, in general, the greatest quantity of volatile alkali, and empyreumatic oil. There are, also, some of the secreted fluids which, on a chemical analysis, yield products in some degree peculiar to themselves. Of this kind is the urine, which is found to contain phosphoric acid and volatile alkali.
The fat, too, has been said to differ from other animal mat- ters in yielding, by distillation, a strong acid, but no volatile alkali. There is also much variety and state of the combi- nations of the saline and other matters, in different secreted fluids. .
Animal oils and fats, like the gross oils of vegetables, are not soluble in water, but may be united with water by the intervention of gum or mucilage.
Most of them may be changed into soap by fixed alkaline salts, and may thus be rendered mixible with both spirit and water.
The odorous matter of some odoriferous animal substances, as musk, civet, castor, is, as well as essential oil, soluble in spirit of wine, and volatile in the heat of boiling water.
It is said that an actual essential oil has been obtained from castor in a very small quantity, but of an exceedingly strong, diffusive smell. The blistering matter of cantharides, and those parts of sundry animal substances in which their pecu- liar taste resides, are dissolved by rectified spirit, and seem to have some analogy with gummy resins.
The gelatinous principle of animals, like the gum of vege- tables, dissolves in water, but not in spirit or in oils; like gums, also, it renders oils and fats mixible with water into a
84 ON ANIMAL MATTER.
milky color. Some insects, particularly the ant, are found to contain an acid juice, which approaches nearly to the nature of vegetable acid. There are, however, sundry animal juices which differ greatly, even in these kinds of properties, from the corresponding ones of vegetables. ‘Thus animal serum, which appears analogous to vegetable, gummy juices, has this remarkable difference, that though it mingles uniformly with cold or warm water, yet, on heating the mixture, the animal matters separate from the watery fluid, and concrete into a solid mass.
Some have been of opinion, that this heat of the animal body, in certain diseases, might rise to such a degree as to produce this dangerous concretion of the serous humors ; yet the heat requisite for this effect is greater than the sys- tem seems capable of sustaining. The soft and fluid parts of animals run quickly into putrefaction ; at least, much quicker than vegetable matter, and when corrupted, prove more offen- sive. ‘This process takes place, in some degree, in the bodies of living animals; as often as the juices stagnate long, or are prevented by an obstruction of the natural outlets from throw- ing off the more volatile and corruptible parts. During putrefaction a quantity of air is generated, all the humors become gradually thinner, and the fibrous parts more lax and tender; hence the distention which succeeds the induration of any of the viscera, or the imprudent suppression of dysen- teries by astringents. The crassamentum of human blood, as well as that of quadrupeds, changes, by putrefaction, into a dark livid color, a few drops of which tinge the serum with a tawny hue, like the ichor of sores and dysenteric fluxes; as also the white of the eye, the saliva, the serum of blood drawn from a vein, &c. The putrid crassamentum changes a large quantity of recent urine to a flame-colored water, so common in diseases where febrile symptoms are present. The mixture, after standing an hour or two, gathers a cloud resembling what is seen in the crude water of acute distem- pers, with some oily matter on the surface, like the scum which floats on scorbutic urine. The serum of the blood
ON ANIMAL MATTER. 85
deposits, in putrefaction, a sediment resembling well-digested pus, and changes to a faint olive-green. A serum so far putrefied as to become green, is frequently to be found in parts that are bruised, and in gangrene. In dead bodies this serum is to be distinguished by the green color the flesh acquires in corrupting. In salted meat, this is commonly ascribed to the brine, but erroneously ; for it is known to resist putrefaction. It has no power of giving this color, but only of qualifying the taste, and in some degree, the ill effects of corrupted aliments. In foul ulcers, or in other sores where the serum is exposed, the matter is hkewise found of this color, and is then always acrimonious. The putrefac- tion of animal substances is prevented, or retarded, by most saline matters; even by the fixed and volatile alkaline salts, which have often been supposed to produce a contrary effect. Of all the salts that have been tried, sea salt seems to resist putrefaction the least ; in small quantities it even accelerates the process.- The vegetable bitters, such as balmony, gen- tian, &c., charcoal, cayenne, gum myrrh, &c., are among the best antiseptics, not only for preserving the flesh long uncor- rupted, but likewise correcting it, in a measure, when putrid.
It has been found, that when animal flesh in substance is beaten up with bread, or other farinaceous vegetables, and a proper quantity of water, into the consistence of paste, this mixture, kept in a heat equal to that of the human body, grows in a little time sour ; while the vegetable matters, with- out the flesh, suffer no change. Some few vegetables, in the resolution of them by fire, discover some agreement in their matter with bodies of the animal kingdom ; yielding a vola- tile alkaline salt in considerable quantity, with- little or nothing of the acid of fixed alkali, which the generality of vegetables afford.
86 ON BREEDING.
ON BREEDING.
Tue choice of a sire and dam is a point of the utmost consequence in breeding horses, (or indeed any other animal, ) as the offspring will be found, in almost every instance, to inherit the qualities of its parents: peculiarity of form and constitution is inherent, and descends from generation to generation. Hence the necessary attention to those niceties which breeders are often apt to forget. Nor is it sufficient that one of the parents be good, and the other indifferent ; for the perfection of the sire may be lost through the defi- ciencies of the mare, and vice versa.
In the selection of a stallion, many things should be ob- served. ‘There should be general uniformity and compactness in every part. The height should depend on the occupation the foal is destined to fill. The legs should be particularly examined, and disease should pervade no part of the system. Fat, heavy horses, with thick legs, and coarse, unseemly heads, should always be avoided. Horses should be free from specks on the eye — partial or total blindness. ‘Temper is an essen- tial point, for vice is sometimes hereditary. Stallions that cover too many mares in a season, in the latter period produce weak offspring.
As regards the mare, it is well known that the dam con- tributes more to production of the offspring than the sire. It is essential that she be in full possession of her natural strength and powers: the vigor of the constitution determines much in favor of the foal. It is a great error to suppose, that amare that has once been good, and capable of great exer- tion, should, when old, and no longer fitted for work, produce offspring equally efficient as when in her prime: the foal will certainly inherit some of the weakness of the present nature and broken-down constitution. Mares should never be put to the stallion until they have arrived at maturity, which takes place about the fifth year. Mares will, and are bred from, earlier, but it is a bad practice, for strength and beauty
ON BREEDING. .
are absent ; and thus not only is the dam rendered inefficient sooner than in one that is allowed to come to maturity, but the foal can never be expected to be either healthy or strong in constitution. The period of going with foal is eleven months: after the sixth month, great care and gentleness should be exercised towards them; moderate exercise is essential ; hard work in harness, over bad roads, is likely to produce abortion ; and mares that have once aborted are very liable (if the same causes are in operation) to a recurrence of the same. (See Asortion, part second. )
The proper time for copulation is when there is a discharge of a whitish fluid from the vagina. She neighs frequently, and exhibits great desire for the horse: when she has con- ceived, she shows no further desire, and the discharge from the vagina stops.
Some writers recommend the mare to be put to the stal- lion early after foaling : this is improper, for the simple reason that the dam has to nourish two, viz., the foal and the em- bryo: this is excessively weakening, and liable to injure one or the other.
Disproportionate copulations are also bad, as a large horse and small mare: the size of the horse should be produced by gentle gradations, and this is evidently a better way to arrive at beauty as well as strength.
The best mode of preserving the breed and making im- provements, is to make selections of the best on both sides. Much judgment and circumspection is necessary at all times in crossing the breed ; and many errors arise in consequence or a want of knowledge in the breeders.
When the period of foaling draws nigh, the mare should be separated from other horses. Having foaled, turn her into a fine pasture, where there is a barn. The foal may be weaned at six months. If the foal dies, or is taken away from the dam, humanity would suggest the propriety of afew weeks’ rest, to enable the animal to recover from the effects of parturition.
88 REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING.
REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING.
In justice to the veterinary surgeons of this country, the author would inform the reader that professional bleeding is very rarely resorted to. ‘To bleed a horse in the present enlightened age, when he is in a state of plethora, or the blood in a morbid state, would be bad practice, for we cannot purify a well of water by withdrawing a bucket; neither can we purify the whole mass of blood by abstracting a portion. The author has seen several cases where the poor animal (a victim to science) had been so far and fatally drained of the living principle, that there was not sufficient blood left in the system to produce reaction. We have profited by the fatal errors that have been committed under our own observation, and have never drawn a drop of blood from a horse, (except in surgical operations, when it could not be avoided,) netther will we ever, under any circumstances, resort to the lancet ; for we are convinced that bloodletting is a powerful depresser of the vital powers.
Blood is the fuel that keeps the lamp of life burning: if the fuel is withdrawn, the lamp is extinguished; hence, if “life is the sum of the powers that resist disease,” then whatever enfeebles life must produce disease and death.
An eminent physician has said, that “after the practice of bloodletting was introduced by Sydenham, during the course of one hundred years, more died of the lancet alone than those who in the same time perished by war.”
Dr. Hunter says, in relation to the human being, — and the same applies to the brute, — that “bloodletting is one of the greatest weakeners, as we kill thereby.”
Professor Lobstein says, “So far from bloodletting being beneficial, it is productive of the most serious consequences — a cruel practice, and a scourge to humanity. How many thousands are sent by it to an untimely grave! Without blood there is no heat, no motion in the body.” For more important information, see Good’s Study of Medicine, vol. i.
REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING. 89
p- 407. Hence to bleed, as taught by the works found in this country, is to bleed until the horse gives signs that the vital principle is about deserting her empire.
Dr. White relates a case: the same takes place every day ; the author has seen several in one day. ‘A horse was brought to be bled, merely because he had been used to it at that season of the year. I did not examine him minutely ; but as the groom stated there was nothing amiss with him, I directed a moderate quantity of blood to be drawn. About five pints were taken off ; and while the operator was pinning up the wound, the horse fell. He appeared_to suffer much pain, and had considerable difficulty of breathing. In this state he remained twelve hours, and then died. Judging from the appearances at the post mortem examination, it is probable that the loss of a moderate quantity of blood caused a fatal interruption of the functions of the heart.” It is surprising that such cases as these do not compel men to acknowledge that there is something wrong in the theory of disease, or its treatment. Here isan unanswerable argument against blood- letting ; for as the blood, which is the natural stimulus of, and gives strength to, the organs, is withdrawn, its abstraction leaves all those organs less capable of self-defence. And if one part is more delicate than the rest, the abstraction of the blood from the circulation that pervades the whole, instead of benefiting the part, will be more sensibly felt by it. Drs. White, Youatt, in fact most veterinary writers, recommend bleeding when the horse has been fed too liberally, or the secretions vitiated. ‘This has led men to commit great errors, and caused great destruction of property. If the horse has been too well fed, reduce the quantity of food, or, in other words, remove the cause. If the secretions are vitiated, then regulate them, not take away the blood on which their vitali- ty depends. If the different parts had between them parti- tions impervious to fluids, then there would be some sense in drawing out of the vessels over filled ; but unfortunately, if you draw from oné, you draw from all the rest.
Again. The authorities above named recommend bleeding
12
90 REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING.
when there is too much blood, There may be at times too much blood, or at others too little; but suppose there is, — has any body found out any other process of making blood, other than the slow process of nature, as exhibited in the process of circulation, digestion, and nutrition? Have they discovered any artificial means of restoring the blood to its healthful quantity when it is deficient? Have they found any other means of purifying the blood, save the healthful operations of tature’s secreting and excreting laboratory? Have they found any safety-valve or outlet for the reduction of what they please to term an excess? And if they have, are they better able to adjust the pressure on that valve than he who made the whole machinery, and knows the relative strength of all its parts?
In an article on bloodletting found in the Farmer’s Ency- clopedia, the author says, “In summer, bleeding is often necessary to prevent fevers,* always choosing the cool of the morning for the operation, and keeping the animal cool the remaining part of the day. Some farriers bleed horses three or four timesa year, + or even oftener, by way of preventive,
* We of the physiological school deny that fever is disease: it is simply an effort of the vital power to regain its equilibrium, and it does this by means of the fever; therefore it should never be subdued. (See FrveEr.)
+ This gives to the blood-vessels the power to contract and adapt them- selves to the measure of blood that remains. Common sense will teach men that frequent bleedings must impoverish the blood. It leads to hydro- thorax, or an accumulation of water in the cavity of the chest, and materi- ally shortens life. Mackintosh says, ‘“ Some are bled who cannot bear it, and others who do not require it; and the result is death.”
{ Nature’s preventives are air, exercise, and water. Dr. Warren says, “In attempting to prevent or cure disease, we must imitate nature.” Now, the proper mode of imitating nature is not by bloodletting, but by the tules we have laid down in articles Feeding, Watering, Ventilation, &c. If the means of prevention recommended by the Cyclopedia were fully carried out, the stock of our farms would be swept away as by the blast of a tor- nado. Such a barbarous system would entail universal misery and degen- eration; and well might we exclaim, They are living, yet half dead, in con- sequence of an evil system of medication. But thanks to a discerning public, they just begin to see the absurdity and wickedness of draining the system
REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING. 91
taking only a small quantity at a time.”* Then the author winds up by saying, “ There is, however, this inconvenience from frequent bleeding, that it grows into a habit,t which in some cases cannot be easily broken off; besides, horses become weak from frequent bleeding.”
“Bleeding,” says Youatt, “lessens the quantity of blood in the vessels, and diminishes nervous power,’’$ (and destroys life, he ought to have added.) He recommends it when ani- mals rub themselves, and the hair falls off, when the eyes appear dull and languid, red or inflamed, the breath hot, and the veins puffed.
In all inflammatory complaints, as of the brain, lungs, kid- neys, bowels, eyes, womb, bladder, and joints; in all bruises, hurts, wounds, and all other accidents.
In cold, catarrh, constipation, and paralysis, and lockjaw, this indiscriminate use of the lancet is calculated to do a vast amount of injury if it is followed up.
The author qualifies his remark as follows: “No man, however wise, can tell exactly how much blood he ought to take in a given case.”
of the living principle: medical reform has germinated, and struck its roots deep into the minds of a class of men who have the means and power of preventing much barbarity and suffering among our domestic animals, and they will use those means to their own interest and the welfare of their stock.
* Small bleedings tend to an unequal distribution of the blood, and diminish its conservative power; the disease must be prevented by the promotion of the equilibrium of the circulation, not its destruction.
+ A habit confined to the operator.
¢ If horses become weak from bleeding, then we have another unanswer- able argument against the practice. For all means or processes that are calculated to debilitate the general system will shorten life; thus at- tempts to cure disease are made with the instrument of death.
§ True ; but the animal lives out his existence in about half the usual time allotted by the Creator, and drags out a miserable life of toil. The conser- vative power of life always operates in favor of health, and remedies the encroachments upon her province with all her might, and frequently recov- ers the dominion, but by frequent bleedings. She has become exhausted ; and upon taking a little more blood than usual, the animal drops down and dies; and the owner of the animal attributes to disease what, in fact, is the result of his evil practice.
92 REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING.
In cases of congestion, or inflammation, the equilibrium of the circulation is disturbed, the capillary structure is con- tracted, and the mouths of the absorbents are closed. The draining of blood from a vein, though it diminishes the force of the congestion or inflammation, does not mend the matter, for it also diminishes the power of the whole system, and thus gives to cold and atmospheric pressure the ascendent influence. A collapse takes place, the secretions become impaired ; thus destroying the power of all parts to recover their reciprocal equilibrium. How can it be expected that a practice which will make those forms of disease, should ever be supposed to cure them. ‘The only rational treatment con- sists in producing a relaxation and expansion of all parts of the system, and keeping up this relaxation, by warmth and moisture, till, by friction and counter irritation, and the re- moval of obstructions to vital action, the healthy equilibrium is restored.
“ Bloodletting,’”’ writes the editor of the London Laneet, ‘has most serious disadvantages ; it invariably renders conval- escence more tedious.”’ Horses that have been bled generally require several weeks’ run at grass to get them into working condition. Dr. White relates a case which proves the truth of our position. “A horse was bled from the neck for lame- ness, without any benefit; the vein was opened a second time, but very little blood could be obtained ; the temporal artery was then opened, and two gallons (of arterial blood) drawn! The next morning it appeared necessary to take another gallon from the other temporal artery! When suf- ficiently recovered, he was turned to grass; and about four months afterwards, he was as lame as ever, and quite useless.”’
This is one among the many thousand similar eases that have come under the author’s observation, im the course of a few years.
The same author above quoted writes, ‘‘ The value of a horse depends on his strength and spirit ; and whatever tends to diminish these will produce a proportionate diminution in his value. The muscular power and nervous energy are
REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING: 93
derived from the blood.” If the latter are derived from the blood, (and we know it is so,) then what inconsistency there is in medical authors to recommend bloodletting, with a view of improving the strength and spirit, when they are depriving the system of that on which the very life of the animal depends.
Our readers may say, horses and cattle are bled and get well. Suppose they do, —is it thus proved that more would not get well if no blood were drawn from any? If the ab- straction of a certain number of gallons of blood will kill a strong horse, then the abstraction of a small quantity will injure him proportionally. We have already shown that there is in the animal economy a power which always oper- ates in favor of health; if the provocation is gentle, this power may overcome both it and the disease, and the animal is considered cured merely because the symptoms that marked the character of the malady disappear. ‘The appearance of symptoms of another order, and perhaps not so alarming in their nature, lead men to suppose they have performed a cure ; when, in fact, they have just sown the seeds of a future disease.
We do not propose to show definitely how a horse gets well in spite of bloodletting. It is enough for us to prove that this operation always tends to death, which can easily be done by conducting the process till no blood remains.
In cases of congestion, or a determination of blood to a vital organ, we find a want of action on the surface and at the extremities. The course we invariably pursue is to equal- ize the circulation, and invite the blood to the surface by warmth, moisture, friction, and counter irritants, and maintain it there by the administration of relaxants and diffusible stimulants. These latter must be of a harmless nature, as we find them compounded in the forest and field, by the Great Physician, the All-wise Creator.
Many interesting experiments have been made to estimate the quantity of blood contained in an animal. ‘“ The weight of a dog, says Mr. Percival, being ascertained to be 79
é
G4 REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING.
pounds, a puncture was made with the lancet into the jugu- lar vein, from which the blood was collected. The vein having ceased to bleed, the carotid artery of the same side was divided, but no blood came from it; in a few seconds afterwards the animal was dead. The weight of the carcass was now found to be 733 pounds; consequently it had sus- tained a loss of 51 pounds, precisely the measure of the blood drawn. It appears from this experiment, that an animal will lose about one fifteenth part of its weight of blood before it dies ; though a less quantity may so far debilitate the vital powers, as to be, though less suddenly, equally fatal. In the human subject, the quantity of blood has been computed at about one eighth part of the weight of the body; and as such an opinion has been broached from the results of experi- ments on quadrupeds, we may fairly take that to be about the proportion of it in the horse ; so that if we estimate the weight of a horse to be 1344 pounds, the whole quantity of blood will amount to 84 quarts, or 168 pounds; of which about 45 quarts, or 90 pounds, will commonly flow from the jugular vein prior to death; though the loss of a much less quantity will deprive the animal of life.*
“Tt is well known that young animals possess more blood than old, and that they will, perhaps on this account, sustain greater bodily injuries, and bear larger hemorrhages. In the latter, when the body is gradually decaying, and the powers of life declining, the quantity of blood becomes reduced. Mr. Wilson, in his lectures on the blood, &c., says that ‘fat animals are found to possess less blood than leaner animals ; and tame animals, which are confined, less blood than wild ones.’ The quantity of blood contained in the body of a man, supposing his whole weight to be 168 pounds, may be rated at 21 pounds, or 2 gallons, 2 quarts and 1 pint. Again, granting that adog weighs 40 pounds, the amount of his blood will be 5 pints; hence we may reckon the loss of a pint from
* The author of Hinds’s Farriery is in error when he states that two hun- dred and twenty quarts are calculated to reside in a middling-sized horse.
ON THE THEORY OF HEALTH. 95
aman to be equivalent to that of a gallon from a horse, or to 4 ounces from a dog, and vice versa; selecting individuals from each class at about the respective weights here set down.” (See Percival’s Lectures, p. 9, vol. i.)
ON THE THEORY OF HEALTH, DISEASE, FEVER, AND INFLAMMATION.
The Healthy or Physiological State. — When all the differ- ent tissues and organs of the animal are sound, unobstructed, and unwearied, — when the living principle has free action through each and every one, according to the degree that it is designed to sustain, — then the animal is in health.
Disease.— Any injury done to the different structures of organs, which does not amount to the total destruction of its vitality, — or, in other words, the inability of an organ, or organs, to perform the natural functions, is termed disease.
Fever. — Fever and inflammation are one and the same thing. They are not disease, and never should be treated as such. It is the accumulated action of the vital system, for the pur- pose of warding off or removing the causes of disease, and restoring the healthy action of the organs.
Let us suppose a horse has been exercised: there is a deter- mination of heat and fluids to the surface, the pores of the skin expand: now, if the horse is put into the stable, or the exercise suddenly ceases, the heat escapes too fast, and leaves the surface cold. For want of heat to keep them open and active, the pores become constricted, so that after the organs of circulation become rested from their fatigue, they com- mence a strong action again, there is not room for the es- cape of the fluids at the surface, the skin becomes dry and harsh, the coat stares, and the animal has, in common par- lance, taken cold, and it has thrown him into a fever. Now, the cold is the real enemy to. be overcome, and the fever should be aided by warmth, moisture, friction, and diffusi-
96 ON THE THEORY OF HEALTH,
bles. If at this stage the cold is removed, the fever will disappear; but if the disease (the cold) has been allowed to advance until a general derangement or sympathetic action is set up, and there is an accumulation of morbific matter in the system, then the restorative process must be more power- ful and energetic ; constantly bearing in mind that we must assist Nature in her endeavors to throw off whatever is the cause of her infirmities. Instead of attacking the disease with the lancet, and poison, — which is on the principle of killing the horse to cure the fever, — we should use remedies that are favorable to life. It matters not what organs are affected ; the means and processes are the same, and therefore the division of inflammation and fever into a great number of parts designated by as many names, and indicated by twenty times as many complications of symptoms which may never be present, only serve to bewilder the practitioner, and render his practice ineffectual, or, as Dr. Bigelow calls it in human practice, ‘learned quackery.” We have said, fever and inflammation are one and the same thing ; when the fever is confined toa small space, it is called inflammation. ‘“ Inflam- mation is rather an effort of nature than a disease.” (Hunter, vol. iv. p. 293. )
As inflammation is an action produced for the restoration of the most simple injury in sound parts, which goes beyond the power of union by what is termed first intention, we must look upon it, in such instances, as one of the most simple operations in nature. Therefore inflammation in itself is not to be considered a disease, but a salutary operation consequent to either violence or disease. (Ibid. vol. iv. p. 285.) Hence, when men cease to consider, and to call fever and inflammation ‘diseased action,” they will begin to learn to heal disease aright, and not till then.
Dr. White writes thus: “Though horses and other domes- tic animals are liable to fever, there is not that variety in the disease, nor is it by any means so intricate as it is in the human subject. Some practitioners do not admit the existence of fever in the horse, as a primary disorder, but consider it as symp-
DISEASE, FEVER, AND INFLAMMATION. 97
tomatic, or dependent on internal disease.” Then why not attempt to cure this internal disease, and let the fever alone? The same author remarks, “The same applies to cattle ; for it is of very little importance whether we call it fever or inflammation.” It is clearly evident that there is but one cause of fever, viz., the natural motive power of the system, and but one fever itself, viz., accumulated vital action; yet the causes of disease are numerous, and many a tissue to be ob- structed, and if the disease were named from the tissue or ergan, as nervous, pulmonic, &c., it would have as many names as there are tissues or organs to be affected; if it be named from the symptoms, it would be numberless and boundless. But of what use is it to decide what particular nerve, blood-vessel, or muscle is contracted, or compressed, seeing that the proper and only rational treatment consists in acting on the whole, nerves, tissues, and blood-vessels, by relaxing them, and equalizing the circulation? But suppose we do ascertain exactly what part of the alimentary canal is contracted in a given case of constriction; what advantage is it tous? Suppose we find it in the duodenum, — have we any specific that will act upon it, other than through the healthy operation of nature’s secreting and excreting process? 'There- fore the symptoms produced by medicines ought always to be those of health : hence those who treat disease according to the principles we have laid down, must not expect to see, in the progress of the disease, the same train of symptoms that are given in works hitherto published on veterinary practice.
Suppose two cases of enteritis (inflammation of the bow- els) were put into the hands of two different men, one of the physiological school, and the other of the allopathic. The latter would, if he practised according to the principles taught by the professors of veterinary surgery, proceed thus. (See Youatt, p. 208.) ‘From six to ten quarts of blood should be taken as soon as possible, and the bleeding repeated to the extent of four or five quarts more, if the pain is not relieved. The speedy weakness that accompanies this disease should not
13
98 ON THE THEORY OF HEALTH,
deter from bleeding largely. It is the weakness that is the consequence of violent inflammation of these parts, and if that inflammation be subdued by the loss of blood, the weakness will disappear.” How weakness can disappear by the loss of blood we are at a loss to conceive. All men agree that the abstraction of blood will produce fainting, and coldness of the extremities. Dr. Hunter, already quoted, says, “‘ Blood- letting is one of the greatest weakeners.”’
“ Next,’”’ continues the author, ‘‘a blister should be resorted to. The tincture of Spanish flies, whether made with spirits of wine or turpentine, should be wellrubbed in.” It is a well- known fact that the application, and final absorption, of Span- ish flies will produce strangury in its worst form: aside from this it is an acrid animal poison, being taken up by the absorb- ents, it enters the circulation, and is often fatal in its result.
Now for the physiological practice. ‘‘ The extremities are cold ;”’ then we should proceed to warm them by hot vapor, stimulating liniments, and by friction with the brush; the belly should be fomented with flannels wrung out in warm water: this process will relax the capillary structure, and equalize the circulation, and relieve the engorged vessels of the intestines: then give an antispasmodic drink. (See ANTIsPasMopIc, part second.) If the bowels are constipated, the following aperient may-with safety be ventured on: Take half a pint of linseed oil, beat up in it the yolk of two eggs, and administer it with a common junk bottle ; then use injec- tions. (See Appendix.) ‘The animal is usually clothed with a blanket. We believe it is the duty of the physician to aid nature in removing from the animal economy all the causes of disease. We therefore adopt the most efficient, yet inno- cent instruments and processes of cure, and totally reject, in all cases and stages of the treatment, all violence, poisons, and the lancet. If bleeding could be practised with impunity, such assistance might be proper in the above case; but as the vital force (whose diminution is the proximate cause of enteritis) is itself dependent upon the blood, increased debil- ity is the necessary consequence of its abstraction. Hence,
DISEASE, FEVER, AND INFLAMMATION. 99
when horses are bled, their convalescence is very tedious. All medical men agree that inflammation is favorable to the healing process, and without it no wound could be healed. How, then, can it be called disease, but by an oversight of the vital aid which it gives to the different organs?
Causes of Disease. —'These are numerous. Any thing that can in any way disable an organ to perform its proper func- tion, is a direct cause of disease. 'There are other causes, as hereditary taints, sudden changes from heat to cold, over- exertion, and want of proper exercise. Overfeeding is one of the principal causes of disease ; the bad quality of the hay or oats, bad water, and inattention to ventilation; the un- necessary dosing with improper medicines.
Poisons — Either taken into the alimentary canal, or by absorption through the external surface, or the lungs; blood- letting, and sluicing cold water on the animal after active exercise.
The indications of cure are to relax spasm, as in lockjaw, or in obstructed surfaces, constipation of the bowels, &c.; to contract and strengthen relaxed and weak organs, as in general debility, diarrhcea, scouring, lampas, &c.; to stimu- late inactive organs; to remove all obstructions to the free action of all the organs; to equalize the circulation, and distribute the blood to the external surface and extremities, as in congestions; to furnish the animal with sufficient nutriment to build up the waste, and prevent friction.
No matter what be the nature of the disease, our treatment is always conducted on these principles.
Dr. Curtis observes, ‘All the fluids of the system are moved through it by the alternate contractions and relaxa- tions of the vessels from which they are sent, and in which they are transmitted; thus the blood is thrown by these actions of the heart and arteries, and returned by the same movements. The chyle is absorbed or elaborated, and carried to the circulation ; and the lymph is taken up and united with it by the alternate contractions and relaxations of the fibres which compose the coats of the tubes through which
100 CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN.
they pass. All the voluntary and involuntary motions of the body are performed by the alternate contractions and relaxa- tions of the fibres; and the food is masticated, swallowed, and moved through the system by the same process. ‘To relax, to contract, to stimulate, and to furnish the system with the proper materials for nutrition, constitute the whole modus operandi of the medical art.”
‘¢ All experience has proved that warmth and moisture relax all animal fibre ; that dry heat or dry cold contracts it; and that some medicines do one, and some the other; that cer- tain articles and processes stimulate the organs to high action, and that nutritious food aids them in building up the wastes and restoring injuries.”
Congestion of the Brain, §c. — In diseases bearing a prox- imity to apoplexy, they manifest themselves in different forms, according to the amount of vital resistance that the animal possesses. ‘Thus we have stomach staggers, congestion of the brain, vertigo, disease of the brain called hydrocephalus. Now, although we observe alarming symptoms in the region of the brain, it is no more a disease of that organ than it is of impaired digestion, circulation, absorption, secretion, &c. ; for the latter are all involved in a deficiency of physiological action, and the cure of stomach staggers is the cure of every other form of disease. 'The different forms of disease sup- posed to be in the brain of horses, are, nominally, impaired digestion, and result from overtaxing the latter function, constipation, want of pure air and sufficient exercise, bad food, &c.: these are chiefly the causes that produce staggers. A primary congestion of the brain, or spinal marrow, is often produced by vitiated and irritating mucous secretions, and indigestible and feculent matter in the intestines, producing, in common parlance, ‘a determination of blood to the head.” (For treatment, see APPENp:x. )
The author has consulted several works on the treatment of apoplexy, congestions, &c.: they all agree in bleeding, blistering, and purging. Mr. Youatt says, “The treatment adopted by the best practitioners is too often unsuccessful.
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The horse should be bled until he faints or drops! Both the neck veins should be opened at once, and the fulness of the stream, or the quickness with which it is taken, is almost as important as the quantity. After purging is effected by large doses of aloes.”” He then recommends foxglove and tartar emetic in doses of a drachm each, three or four times a day. “The head should be blistered: rowels and setons give use- less pain, for the horse is either cured or dead before they perceptibly begin to act.”” (See Youatt, p. 105.)
It is surprising that such a man as Mr. Youatt could not perceive the reason why “the treatment is too often wnsuc- cessful.” The means recommended are calculated to kill, not to cure: hence, if the disease did not carry the animal off, the treatment would. Why draw away the blood from the poor animal, when all that is needed is to give it equal distribution, and rid the stomach and alimentary canal of offending matter? Dr. Hinds observes, “In all ordinary cases of staggers and congestion of the brain, simply opening the bowels will effect a cure, nine cases out of ten. I have known violent cases of staggers cured by injections and a dose of physic.”
The whole train of maladies, viz., staggers, &c., can be traced to acute or chronic indigestion, or an obstructed sur- face, accompanied often by the retention of a great mass of indigestible food in the stomach and intestines. How on earth bloodletting can relieve the stomach and intestines of this load, we should like to know. Bloodletting may give a momentary respite to the distended vessels of the brain, in apoplexy, and the animal appear relieved ; but, by destroying, in a certain degree, the vital energies, it also admits of a still further reaction, which is favored by the pressure of the atmosphere on the extreme vessels of the external surface ; and thus the advocates of bleeding find a repetition of the practice still more necessary than at the commencement. Dr. White says, ‘If no relief is obtained by abstracting seven or eight quarts of blood, take away five quarts more!” Now, it is evident, that if we were to draw out all the blood, the
102 CONGESTION.
animal would die; as it is, they try to leave just enough to keep up a low form of vitality. Most authors agree that in “megrims, mad staggers, stomach staggers, apoplexy, and congestions, there is a determination of blood to the head, and may be produced by causes that mechanically impede, or obstruct, the flow of blood.’? Then they should be re- moved by regulating the unequal distribution. If a horse has too much blood in the head, he will have too little in the tail and extremities. 'The difference of symptoms in the derangements just enumerated, differ only according to the state of the organs, and the manner in which the blood is thrown on the brain, and retained there. There is no real difference in the nature of the malady. The same indications of cure are to be fulfilled that we have just laid down, viz., to relax the whole horse, and remove obstructions from the alimentary canal and external surface.
Dr. Marshall Hall says, “Physical impediments to the return of blood by the veins will cause congestion.”” ‘These impediments consist in any thing that weakens the force of the circulation, as bloodletting, narcotizing, calomelizing, &c., as practised by the disciples of Sainbel. Few cases of disease occur without the parentage of some of these Sam- sons of the regular school. The veins, having but little forcing power at their base (like the arteries) to propel the blood back to the heart, are the first to feel the impediments and compel the blood to accumulate ; hence congestions.
Professor Coleman considers that this disorder takes its rise from over-distention of the stomach. He was once consulted about some horses, among whom there had been a strange mortality ; and he found that they were in the habit of con- tinuing at work for ten hours together, during the day, and on their return home at night were abundantly supplied with food. 'The professor soon discovered the source of the evil, and ordered, for the future, that the horses should be fed in the middle of the day also, by means of nose-bags; which salutary practice put flight to the epizootic. Now, this is
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certainly a strong case to show the stomachic origin of the malady.
Mr. Blain says, “The treatment of staggers has been notoriously unsuccessful. I never witnessed a successful issue, and think that men have strangely erred in pointing out remedies for this malady. Phlebotomy will certainly tend to relieve congestion or inflammatory action, that may exist in the brain; but the main question for us to consider, is, whether it can have any effect in unloading the stomach. Practitioners are in the habit of expressing their surprise at the obstinate apathy of the bowels ; whereas, is it unreasonable to suppose that 12 or even 20 drachms of aloes can have any effect, when they can pass no farther than the stomach? It is possible that active stimulants may have such an impres- sion upon the stomach, as to excite contraction in it. [Then why not use them?] The state of the brain in staggers, generally speaking, appears to be, in the beginning, that of simple congestion, or unequal distribution of the blood. [Then equalize, instead of abstracting it.] In most of the heads I have examined, vascular distention of the membranes was found, with minute bloody specks upon the divided surfaces of the brain.”
From the professor’s remarks we are led to conclude, that prevention is more valuable and successful than their attempt at cure. ‘The reason why their treatment is “notoriously unsuccessful,”’? the reader can readily perceive, when he takes into consideration the destructive nature of the treatment, which is as follows: ‘ Bleed profusely ; most of those sub- jects will bear to lose six or eight, and some even ten quarts of blood. The next consideration is purgation. The com- mon saying is, Purge a horse with staggers and you cure him; and there is much truth in the observation, for we know that hardly any one thinks of purging before he has bled the animal, so that the purge is acting under the most favorable circumstances. [Unfavorable he ought to have said.] Two drachms of castor nut, and a small quantity of calomel, are to be given ina bolus; promote the action by aloetic injections,
104 INHUMAN TREATMENT OF HORSES IN ENGLAND.
and follow up the purgative medicine by diminished doses. In the intervals between the repetition of the purges, helle- bore [poison] should be administered every six hours, in doses of half to a drachm, provided the first quantity make no im- pression ; nothing, bleeding excepted, operates more effectu- ally in diminishing the force of blood to the head, than the excitement of nausea at stomach. Having, by these means, sensibly weakened the impulse of the circulation, the head should be shorn, and blisters applied over the forehead, the occiput, and temples, and should be renewed every six hours, until vesication is abundantly produced.”
This is a specimen of scientific doctoring. Many of our farmers could scarcely believe that men could be so eruel. It is passing strange that the regular faculty, with all their advantages of numbers, learning, and respectability, have only learned how to kill, instead of cure.
How to avoid Congestions, Staggers, and Apoplexy. — Never permit an animal to eat too great a quantity of food at one time, Let him have less than usual after being worked hard. Buy the best food in the market, for cheap fodder is dear at any price. Attend to the directions we have laid down in the articles Feeding, Watering, &c.; lastly, avoid the lancet and poison.
INHUMAN TREATMENT OF HORSES IN ENGLAND.
“THE object of the veterinary profession,’”? says Dr. White, ‘Cis to remove the pains and diseases of our domestic animals. Can we honestly, heartily, succesfully employ ourselves, if we do not sympathize with them? if we do not love to see them happy, and contemplate their sufferings with regret? Can the brute who regards them as mere machines, devoid of rights, placed without the pale of justice, created merely for our purposes, and to be sacrificed without crime to our caprices ;
INHUMAN TREATMENT OF HORSES IN ENGLAND. 105
—can he so identify himself with his profession, as to neglect no opportunity to mitigate pain, and to spare no exer- tion to increase enjoyment? ‘This is the duty, and ought to be the pride and pleasure, of every veterinary surgeon. Re- gard to reputation, and sense of duty to our employer, are powerful principles of action.
“Dare we trace the education of the veterinary surgeon as far as humanity is concerned? See him at the college attending a necessary, but severe operation, jostling and wrestling with his fellows for the best view ; execrating the struggles of the agonized animal, and mocking its groans; not one expression of commiseration heard ; not one calcu- lation, how far a part, at least, of the torture may be saved, consistently with the object of the operation; the loud laugh, and the ribald joke, drowning the voice of the opera- tor, — or the operator himself, when not too much annoyed by the shameless indecency of the scene, pausing in the midst of his work, and joining in the laugh. We have some- times thought, that if a stranger were present at this unnatu- ral exhibition, he would imagine that we were training for purposes of brutality, and not of humanity, and be very cautious how he intrusted a valuable and generous animal to our tender mercies. And sure we are, that scenes like these are more calculated to train us to become butchers than sur- geons; and hence, in a great measure, it is that so many of our operations are performed in a butcher-like manner. We are aware that one of the most important requisites in a sur- geon is self-possession ; and that the feelings of the patient should not for a moment merge in the important object of the operation ; but this is different from those exhibitions in which there is no previous comparison of suffering and ad- vantage, and no subsequent commiseration. It carinot be denied, that circumstances do sometimes attend the operations of veterinary surgery, which would meet with universal execration in the theatre of the human surgeon. The inevi- table consequences of this on the mind of the young prac- titioner have not been sufficiently calculated ; or, rather, the
14
L06 INHUMAN TREATMENT OF HORSES IN ENGLAND.
error has been, that we have not felt ourselves bound to re- gard the feelings and the sufferings of the animal given to our care.
“A knot of young pupils go to the knacker; they bargain for some poor, condemned animal; they cast him, and they cut him up, and torture him alive. They perform the nerve operation on each leg, and on each side ; they fire him on the coronet, the fetlock, the leg, the hock, and the round bone; they insert setons in every direction; they nick him, they dock him, they trephine him: when one is tired of cruelty, another succeeds him: and at length, perhaps, they terminate his sufferings by some new mode of destroying his life. Did the great surgeons of the present day thus acquire precision and judgment? or, if they did, would they not have been supposed to have been qualifying themselves for the office of familiars at the Inquisition, rather than of humane surgeons? Would they not have been detested while living, and held in lasting execration when dead? But these operations on the living subject teach the youngster how to accommodate him- self to the struggles of the animal, how to feather his lines with mathematical exactness, and to acquaint himself with the true color produced by the iron when it has seared the skin sufficiently deep! Would not one or two operations on the real patient have given all the information that would be necessary, without engaging the conservators of the health and enjoyment of the horse in the functions of demons, and giving them an indifference to suffering, and a callousness of feeling which taints the whole course of their after practice ?
“That school wants reform that tempts pupils to the com- mission of atrocities like these. Every pupil, after having been compelled to operate once, or twice, or thrice, on the